Wine

Wine

Glasses of red and white wine
Type	Alcoholic beverage
Alcohol by volume	Typically 12.5–14.5%[1]
Ingredients	Varies; see Winemaking
Variants	Red White Rosé Orange Sparkling Dessert

Wine is an alcoholic drink made from fermented grapes.^[a] It is produced in many regions across the world in a wide variety of styles, influenced by different varieties of grapes, growing environments and methods, and production techniques.

Wine has been produced for thousands of years, the earliest evidence dating from 6000 BCE in present-day Georgia. Its popularity spread around the Mediterranean during Classical antiquity, and was sustained in Western Europe by monks, as well as by a secular trade for general drinking. New World wine was established by settler colonies from the 16th century onwards, and the wine trade increased dramatically up to the latter half of the 19th century, when European vineyards were largely destroyed by the invasive pest Phylloxera.

Wine is consumed widely, on its own, paired with food, or used in cooking. It is often tasted and assessed, with drinkers using a wide range of descriptors to communicate a wine's characteristcs. It is also collected and stored, as an investment or to improve with age. Its alcohol content makes wine generally unhealthy to consume, although it may have cardioprotective benefits.

Wine has long played an important role in religion. The Ancient Greeks revered Dionysus, the god of wine, from around 1200 BCE, and the Romans their equivalent, Bacchus, at least until the latter half of the second century BCE. It forms an important part of Jewish traditions, such as the Kiddushcode: iw is deprecated , and is central to the Christian Eucharist.

The earliest known traces of wine are from Georgia (c. 6000 BCE).^[4][5][6][7] Both archaeological and genetic evidence suggest that the earliest production of wine outside Georgia was relatively later, likely having taken place elsewhere in the Southern Caucasus or the region between Eastern Anatolia and northern Iran.^[8][9] The earliest known winery, from 4100 BCE, is the Areni-1 winery in Armenia.^[10][11]

The spread of wine culture in the Mediterranean was probably due to the influence of the Phoenicians from about 1000 BCE.^[12] The wines of Byblos were exported to Egypt during the Old Kingdom and then throughout the Mediterranean.^[13] Industrialized production of wine in ancient Greece began around 600 BCE and spread across the Italian peninsula and to southern Gaul.^[14] The ancient Romans further increased the scale of wine production and trade networks, especially in Gaul around the time of the Gallic Wars, and many famous vineyards date from Roman occupation.^[14][15] The Romans discovered that burning sulfur candles inside empty wine vessels kept them fresh and free from a vinegar smell, due to the antioxidant effects of sulfur dioxide.^[16]

In medieval Europe, Catholic monks grew grapes and made wine for the Eucharist.^[17] Monasteries expanded their land holdings over time and established vineyards in many of today's most successful wine regions. Bordeaux was a notable exception, being a purely commercial enterprise serving the Duchy of Aquitaine and by association Britain between the 12th and 15th centuries.^[14]

European wine grape traditions were incorporated into New World wine, with colonists establishing vineyards in order to celebrate the Eucharist. Vineyards were established in Mexico by 1530, Peru by the 1550s and Chile shortly afterwards. The European settlement of South Africa and subsequent trade involving the Dutch East India Company led to the planting of vines in 1655. British colonists attempted to establish vineyards in Virginia in 1619, but were unable to due to the native phylloxera pest, and downy and powdery mildew. Jesuit Missionaries managed to grow vines in California in the 1670s, and plantings were later established in Los Angeles in the 1820s and Napa and Sonoma in the 1850s. Arthur Phillip introduced vines to Australia in 1788, and viticulture was widely practised by the 1850s. The Australian missionary Samuel Marsden introduced vines to New Zealand in 1819.^[18]

The second half of the 17th century may be considered the start of the modern wine industry, with the invention of the glass wine bottle and use of cork stoppers to seal them, as well as the establishment of producers such as Château Haut-Brion which began to focus on quality. The subsequent centuries saw a boom in the wine trade, especially in the mid-to-late 19th century, in Italy, Spain and California.^[14]

Around this time, the Great French Wine Blight began, caused by an infestation of the aphid phylloxera brought over from America, whose louse stage feeds on vine roots and eventually kills the plant. Almost every vine in Europe needed to be replaced, by necessity grafted onto American rootstock which is naturally resistant to the pest. This practise continues to this day, with the exception of a small number of phylloxera-free wine regions such as South Australia.^[19]

The modern English word "wine" comes from the Old English wīn, descended from the Latin vīnum and adopted while the latin v was still pronounced as a modern [w]. The Latin vītis and vīnea led to the French vigne, which was subsequently introduced to England during the Norman Conquest, becoming wīngeard (eventually "vineyard") and "vine".^[2]

vītis is related to an Indo-European verb-root meaning to "wind" or "twine", but the origins of vīnum and vīnea are unclear.^[2] Some scholars have noted the similarities between the words for wine in Indo-European languages (e.g. Armenian gini, Ancient Greek οἶνος, Russian вино [vʲɪˈno]), Kartvelian (e.g. Georgian ღვინო [ˈɣvino]), and Semitic (*wayn; Hebrew יין [jajin]), pointing to the possibility of a common origin of the word denoting "wine" in these language families.^[20] The Georgian word goes back to Proto-Kartvelian *ɣwino-,^[21] which is either a borrowing from Proto-Indo-European^[21][22] or the lexeme was specifically borrowed from Proto-Armenian *ɣʷeinyo-, whence Armenian gini.^{[23][24][25][26][21]} An alternative hypothesis by Fähnrich supposes *ɣwino-, a native Kartvelian word derived from the verbal root *ɣun- ('to bend').^[27][b]

Wine is made in many ways from different fruits. The term does not typically include drinks made from starches (e.g. beer), honey (mead), apples (cider) or pears (perry), or a liquid which is subsequently distilled to make liquor. The unqualified term "wine" typically refers to a drink made from fermented grape juice;^[2] alcoholic drinks from other fruits are generically called fruit wine.^[3]

Most fruits other than grapes lack sufficient fermentable sugars, are overly acidic, and do not have enough nutrients for yeast, necessitating winemaker intervention. They do not typically improve with age, and last less than a year after bottling. Fruit wines are particularly popular in North America and Scandinavia.^[3]

The type of grape used and the amount of skin contact while the juice is being extracted determines the color and general style of the wine.

Types of wine from grapes

	Long contact with grape skins	Short contact with grape skins	No contact with grape skins
Red grapes	Red wine	Rosé wine	White wine
White grapes	Orange wine	White wine

Red wine is made from dark-colored red grape varieties, and the actual color of the wine can range from dark pink to almost black.^[28] Red wine gains its color and flavor (notably, tannins) from the grape skin, by allowing the grapes to soak in the extracted juice.^[29] The juice from most red grapes is actually pale gray;^[30] the red color comes from anthocyanins present in the skin of the grape.^[29] Exceptions to this include the family of teinturier varieties and some versions of Gamay, which actually have red flesh.^[31]

White wine is typically made from white grape varieties (those with yellow or green skins), and range from practically colorless to golden. However, red grapes may be used to make a white wine if the winemaker separates the skins from the juice quickly after pressing to minimize skin contact, and white champagne commonly uses red grapes in this way.^[32] When skin contact is used, to improve the flavor, or to increase the body or aging potential, it is usually limited to between four and 24 hours;^[33] any longer leads to astringency and bitterness. Consequently, unlike red wines, whites lack anthocyanins and pigmented tannins.^[32]

A rosé wine gains color from red grape skins, but not enough to qualify it as a red wine. The color can range from a very pale pink to pale red.^[34]

There are two primary ways to produce rosé wine. The preferred technique is allowing a short period of skin contact after crushing red grapes, which extracts a certain amount of color. The juice is then fermented like a white wine. An alternative is blending a small amount of finished red wine into finished white wine. This practise is not allowed in most controlled wine regions, although Champagne is a notable exception.^[34]

Sometimes called amber wines, these are wines made with white grapes but with the skins allowed to macerate during and beyond fermentation, similar to red wine production. This results in their darker color compared to white wines, and produces a deliberately astringent end result.^[35]

These are effervescent wines, made in any of the above styles (i.e, orange, red, rosé, white). They must undergo secondary fermentation to create carbon dioxide, which remains dissolved in the wine under pressure in the sealed container.^[36]

Two common methods of accomplishing this are the traditional method, used for Cava, Champagne, and more expensive sparkling wines, and the Charmat method, used for Prosecco, Asti, and less expensive wines. A hybrid transfer method is also used, yielding intermediate results, and simple addition of carbon dioxide is used in the cheapest of wines.^[37]

Dessert wines have a high level of residual sugar remaining after fermentation. There are several ways of making sweet wines, the most common being the use of grapes affected by noble rot (e.g. Sauternes), freezing (e.g. icewine), or drying (e.g. Vin Santo).^[38]

Wine is usually made from one or more varieties of the European species Vitis vinifera,^[39] such as Pinot noir, Chardonnay, Cabernet Sauvignon and Sauvignon blanc. Most of the world's vineyards are planted with European Vitis vinifera vines that have been grafted onto North American species' rootstock, a common practice due to their resistance to phylloxera, a root louse that eventually kills the vine.^[39]

In the context of wine production, terroir is a concept that encompasses the varieties of grapes used, elevation and shape of the vineyard, type and chemistry of soil, climate and seasonal conditions, and the local yeast cultures.^[40] The range of possible combinations of these factors can result in great differences among wines, influencing the fermentation, finishing, and aging processes as well. Many wineries use growing and production methods that preserve or accentuate the aroma and taste influences of their unique terroir.^[41] However, flavor differences are less desirable for producers of mass-market table wine or other cheaper wines, where consistency takes precedence. Such producers try to minimize differences in sources of grapes through production techniques such as micro-oxygenation, tannin filtration, cross-flow filtration, thin-film evaporation, and spinning cones.^[42]

There are a number of different ways of making wine in a modern winery, each decision affecting the final outcome. The first step is harvesting the grapes, the timing of which depends on sugar and acid levels, any diseases affecting the crop, and the weather, among other things. Grapes are harvested by hand or machine, sorted to select those of sufficient quality, and then typically destemmed and crushed to release the juice. The liquid may macerate for a few hours before being pressed and clarified.^[43]

The liquid is then transferred to a container for fermentation, which is typically made of oak, stainless steel or concrete, and either open or closed. Yeast is naturally present on grape skins, but most producers choose to use a specific strain to benefit from behaviors such as speed of fermentation, and to control the flavors produced. The yeast consumes the sugars and converts them into alcohol, heat, and carbon dioxide. For red wines, winemakers may choose to encourage the extraction of tannins and flavor from the grape skins by agitating the mixture. Additives such as sugar (to increase the ultimate alcohol content) may be added if permitted by law. Some wines undergo a secondary, malolactic fermentation, in which the harsher malic acid is converted into lactic acid by bacteria. Finally the wine may be filtered to remove microbes and yeast, and sulfites may be added as a preservative.^[43]

Most wines are sold in glass bottles, traditionally sealed with a cork stopper.^[44] The standard volume of wine bottle is 75cl, although they can range from 18.7cl to 18 liters. Bottles come in various shapes; the most common is the Bordeaux bottle, which has straight sides and high shoulders, but others include the Burgundy bottle, which is more conical; the Alsace bottle, which is taller and more slender; and the Provence bottle, which is more hourglass-shaped.^[45] The bottles used for sparkling wine are similar to Burgundy bottles,^[45] but must be thick to withstand the pressure of the gas behind the cork, which can be up to 6 standard atmospheres (88 psi).^[46]

Most cork for wine bottles comes from Alentejo, but a decline in quality in the late 20th century and an increase in demand spurred development of alternatives. An increasing number of wine producers use alternative closures such as screwcaps and synthetic "corks".^[44] Although alternative closures reduce the risk of cork taint,^[44] they have been blamed for such problems as excessive reduction.^[47]

Box wines, also known as "bag-in-box" or "cask" wines, are packaged in plastic bags within cardboard boxes. Wine is poured from a tap affixed to the bag. Box wine can stay acceptably fresh for several weeks after opening because the bladder limits contact with air and, thus, slowing the rate of oxidation.^[48][49] Box wine is popular in northern Europe and especially Australia and New Zealand, and is generally used to package inexpensive wines intended for early drinking.^[49]

Other containers include canned wine which, as of 2019, is one of the fastest-growing forms of alternative wine packaging on the market,^[48] and stainless steel kegs, referred to as wine on tap and intended for use in bars and restaurants.^[50]

Environmental considerations of wine packaging reveal the benefits and drawbacks of both bottled and box wines. The glass used to make bottles is a nontoxic, naturally occurring substance that is completely recyclable, but its production may cause air pollution. A New York Times editorial suggested that box wine, being lighter in package weight, has a reduced carbon footprint from its distribution; however, box-wine plastics, even though possibly recyclable, can be more labor-intensive (and therefore expensive) to process than glass bottles.^[51] Canned wine has the advantage of recyclable packaging.^[48]

Wine grapes grow mainly between 30 and 50 degrees latitude north and south of the equator, although the effects of climate change and advances in viticulture are increasing the area under vine elsewhere.^[52] The world's southernmost vineyard is in Sarmiento, Argentina, near the 46th parallel south.^[53] The northernmost wine region is Okanagan Valley which reaches up to the 50th parallel north.^[54][55]

2023 wine production estimates

Rank	Country	Production (million hecolitres)[56]	Production (% of world)[56]	Exports (million hecolitres)[57]	Export market share (% of value in US$)[58]
1	France	48.0	20.2%	12.7	33.3%
2	Italy	38.3	16.1%	21.4	21.6%
3	Spain	28.3	11.9%	20.8	8.2%
4	United States	24.3*	10.2%*	2.1	3.2%
5	Chile	11.0	4.6%	6.8	3.9%
6	Australia	9.6	4.1%	6.2	3.6%
7	South Africa	9.3	3.9%	3.5	1.6%
8	Argentina	8.8	3.7%	2.0	1.7%
9	Germany	8.6	3.6%	3.3	2.9%
10	Portugal	7.5	3.2%	3.2	2.6%
World		237.3			* Estimated

Regulations govern the classification and sale of wine in many regions of the world. When one variety of grape is predominantly used,^[c] the wine may be marketed as a "varietal" as opposed to a "blended" wine.^[65] Similarly, in order to state a vintage, a percentage of the grapes must have been harvested in the declared year.^[d]

European wines tend to be classified by region (e.g. Bordeaux, Rioja and Chianti), with restrictions on grape varieties, yields and vinification methods.^[70]

Since 2009, wine from the European Union has been classified under the geographical indicators "protected geographical indication" (PGI) and "protected designation of origin" (PDO), which protect product names in order to promote the products of a specific area and the methods used.^[71][72] National regulations correspond to these designations and subdivide them, such as in Germany's Landwein and Qualitätswein, Italy's Denominazione di origine controllata (e garantita), and the French system of Appellation d'origine contrôlée.^[73]

The classification of Swiss wine was historically complex due to its system of federalism, but was due to be simplified and made consistent with EU rules in 2022.^[74] Similar to the EU, regulations regarding English wine denote rules for PGI and PDO products.^[75][76]

New World wine classifications are generally limited to indications of geographical areas, such as in the American Viticultural Area and Australian Wine Geographical Indications systems.^[70][77] Australia also relies on awarding individual wines at prominent wine competitions, as well as in the influential publication Langton's Classification of Australian Wine.^[78] Some producers have created voluntary schemes to allow producers to indicate adherence to a stricter set of criteria than required by law, such as Appellation Marlborough Wine in New Zealand and Meritage in the USA.^[79][80] Overall, however, New World countries avoid rigid classification systems, allowing for more flexibility and experimentation.^[81]

Wine indicating a vintage contains the juice of grapes harvested that year, with the exception of Eiswein picked in early January, which is dated the previous year. Most of a vintage's characteristics are a result of the weather experienced by the vines during their growth cycle; the interaction between weather, grape varieties and terroir leads to different areas thriving under different conditions. In most of Europe, good vintages correlate with years of plenty of sunshine and average-to-warm temperatures, whereas bad vintages almost always occur in cold and/or wet years with little sunshine. In warmer climates, good vintages usually have average-to-cool temperatures. Even within a single area, however, aspects such as the soil type and depth can lead to different results, as can the variety of grape being grown, as different varieties tolerate different types of weather. Therefore vintages are rarely uniformly "good" or "bad" even within a small area.^[82]

For consistency, non-vintage wines can be blended from more than one vintage, which helps winemakers maintain a consistent flavor profile. This is common for Champagne, Port, Sherry and Madeira.^[83]

Wine fraud can take several forms, such as mixing a wine with a cheaper one to increase profits, surreptitiously adulterating it with additives, or passing it off as a more expensive wine by relabeling it. Such instances of fraud have a history dating back to Ancient Greece, but wine fraud has become less common overall since the late 19th century as legal frameworks and appellation systems have become stricter and more widespread.^[84] Nevertheless, the increase of the value of fine wines since the 1970s has led to a corresponding increase in relabeling fraud.^[85]

Decanting involves pouring the wine into an intermediate container before serving it in a glass, which allows the removal of undesirable sediments that may have formed in the wine. Sediment is more common in older bottles, but aeration in a decanter may benefit younger wines as well.^[86] During aeration, a younger wine's exposure to air often "opens it up", releasing more flavor. Aerating older wines, however, can oxidise them.^[87]

As a standard rule, red wines are served at what would historically have been "room temperature" (now, with modern heating and insulation, this would be considered the temperature of a cool room), whites chilled, and sparkling and sweeter whites even cooler.^[89] Volatile flavor compounds evaporate more easily at higher temperatures, so warmer wines increase the intensity of aroma. However, alcohol begins to evaporate noticeably over 20 °C (68 °F), and the carbon dioxide in sparkling wines is released too quickly at temperatures of about 18 °C (64 °F). The palate is more sensitive to sweetness at higher temperatures, so when the sweetness is not balanced by acidity a wine should be served cooler. Cooler temperatures also suppress aroma, and therefore faults detectable on the nose, but increase sensitivity to tannins and bitterness.^[88]

Wine tasting is the sensory examination and evaluation of wine, allowing the consumer to identify faults and appreciate the product. Tasting takes place in many different settings, from casual social engagements to blind tasting examinations.^[91] Tasting a wine typically involves assessing its appearance, smell, and taste.^[92]

When judging a wine's appearance, faults can be apparent due to cloudiness or unexpected effervescence.^[93] The color of the wine may indicate its age, with red wines becoming paler and white wines becoming darker, although color is also influenced by the grapes used. "Legs" or "tears" – lines formed on the glass after swirling – indicate high alcohol content or sweetness.^[94]

A wine's "nose" (smell) may range from neutral to pungent, and it informs most of the experience of tasting a wine. Tasters often use a wide range of descriptors to compare wine aromas to other things, from fruits and vegetables such as pineapple and asparagus to non-consumables such as compost heaps and leather. The origin of these may be the grapes used, or the fermentation or maturation process.^[95] When the nose includes an undesirable scent, this may indicate a fault.^[96]

On the palate the taster experiences the mouthfeel of the wine, including its sweetness, acidity, bitterness, tannins and alcohol, as well as saltiness in the case of sherry.^[97] Once the wine is swallowed or spat out, the length of time the flavours remain detectable is an indicator of quality.^[91]

• Wine consumption per person, 2019
• Wine as a share of total alcohol consumption, 2016

Wine is important in cuisine not just for its value as a drink, but in preparing food as well. It can be used in preparation and tenderizing, as well as a flavor agent in marinades , stocks, stews (e.g. coq au vin, beef bourguignon),^[98] and sauces (e.g. in wine sauces).^[99] Many desserts also contain wine, such as zabaione and trifle. Ethanol evaporates at 78 °C (172 °F), so when wine is heated past this point it likely loses much of its alcohol content, and its acidity and sugars become more prominent. The necessary quality of cooking wine is a matter of debate, but faulty wine is not appropriate for culinary use, and the range of flavor compounds in a fine wine do not survive heating.^[98]

Red table wine

Nutritional value per 100 g (3.5 oz)
Energy	355 kJ (85 kcal)
Carbohydrates	2.6 g
Sugars	0.6 g
Fat	0.0 g
Protein	0.1 g
Vitamins and minerals
Other constituents	Quantity
Alcohol (ethanol)	10.6 g
10.6 g alcohol is 13%vol. 100 g wine is approximately 100 ml (3.4 fl oz.) Sugar and alcohol content can vary.

Some studies have shown an association between moderate wine consumption and a decrease in cardiovascular and all-cause mortality. However, alcohol consumption is also associated with an increased risk of a number of other health conditions, such as cancer.^[100][101]

The stilbene resveratrol has shown cardioprotective attributes in humans.^[102] Grape skins naturally produce resveratrol in response to fungal infection, including exposure to yeast during fermentation. White wine generally contains lower levels of the chemical as it has minimal contact with grape skins during this process.^[103] Nevertheless, the potential harms of regular alcohol consumption are considered to outweigh any such benefits.^[104]

Research by Pesticide Action Network found that European wines contains large amounts of PFAS ("forever chemicals"), particularly TFA, which have long-term negative health consequences.^[105]

Many wines improve with age; conversely, wines can reduce in quality over time by suboptimal storage conditions, such as being exposed to strong light and heat. Optimal conditions are provided by wine cellars and wine caves, as well as temperature-controlled cabinets.^[106]

The ideal temperature for wine storage is 12–13 °C (54–55 °F) with a humidity of 65–70%. Lower humidity levels and temperature fluctuations can dry out or stress a cork over time, allowing oxygen to enter the bottle, which reduces the wine's quality through oxidation.^[107][106] Wines with corks are typically stored horizontally to help keep the cork moist, but this is not necessary for screwcaps.^[106]

Investment by buying bottles and cases of the most desirable wines became especially popular during the early 21st century, due to an increase in the global popularity of wine as well as low interest rates driving demand for alternatives which may yield higher returns. Bordeaux is especially popular for investment, due to its fame, high volume of output, longevity, and relatively simple naming system. Burgundy is also popular, with the 2016 Romanée-Conti fetching £3,250 per bottle, as well as Italian wines such as Barolo, Barbaresco, and those of Tuscany.^[108]

Wines may also be bought and then aged for future consumption. Most wine is intended to be drunk within a year of bottling, but top-quality wines are usually sold long before they reach their optimal drinking window, with flavors developing in the bottle over many years. Estimating the optimal time to consume a wine is impossible to do accurately, partly because it is only clear that the ideal time has passed when the quality starts to decline, but also because bottle variation and differences in storage create differences even between wines of the same vintage and batch.^[106]

Dionysus, the Ancient Greek god of wine, is attested from around 1200 BCE, with a distinct personality becoming apparent by the eighth century BCE. Festivals in his name took place in wine-producing regions across Greece and Asia Minor in autumn or early spring, respectively when grapes were harvested or wine was released. He was one of the most frequently represented figures in classical art and literature.^[109]

Bacchus was the incarnation of Dionysus in the Roman pantheon. It is unclear when his cult gained popularity, but in 186 BCE the Senate forbade rites in his honor in the decree Senatus consultum de Bacchanalibus.^[110] He features on many Roman sarcophagi, appearing to represent "an agent of deliverance from earthly concerns", in a similar way to how the Greeks viewed him.^[111]

Wine is mentioned many times in Ancient Hebrew texts: the Promised Land is likened to a large cluster of grapes, Psalm 104 refers to wine's ability to "gladden the human heart", and the Song of Solomon compares the narrator's lover's breasts to "clusters of the vine", and her kisses to "the best wine".^[113] Noah was supposedly the first person to plant a vineyard, after the flood.^[114]

Wine forms an integral part of Jewish laws. The Derekh Eretz Rabbah and the Tosefta detail strict rules on the drinking of wine, such as "a man shall not drink from a cup and hand it to his neighbour" and "a man shall not drink all of [the contents of] his cup at once". Excess drinking of wine is condemned by scripture, which shows it leading to improper sexual relationships in the cases of Lot and Noah, and drunkenness as a metaphor for divine judgment.^[113] Nevertheless, wine is approved as a medicine in the Talmud.^[115]

Wine is used in Jewish traditions. The Kiddush is a blessing recited over wine or grape juice to sanctify the Shabbat, and during the Passover Seder, it is a Rabbinic obligation of adults to drink four cups of wine.^[116] In the Tabernacle and in the Temple in Jerusalem, the libation of wine was part of the sacrificial service.^[117]

Wine features prominently in several passages of the Bible. In echoes of earlier Jewish texts, Jesus is referred to as "the true vine" (John 15:1) and his wrath like "a great winepress" (Revelation 14:9). His first miracle involved turning water into wine at the Marriage at Cana. Most notably, wine was drunk at the Last Supper, during which Jesus used it as a metaphor for his blood – this forms a key part of the Eucharist and informs theological ideas on transubstantiation, being a key symbol of salvation.^[118] The centrality of wine in the Eucharist led to monks growing grapes to make wine, and monasteries became important agents in wine production during the Middle Ages.^[119]

Alcoholic drinks, including wine, are forbidden under most interpretations of Islamic law.^[120] The Qur'an, cited as the root of this prohibition, portrays wine in various lights, including as an "abomination" as well as a reward ("rivers of wine") in Jannah.^[121] The undated comments on wine were latter arranged by scholars to suggest "a chronological progression towards a clear condemnation of the drink".^[122] By contrast, the Hadith consistently condemns wine, although it is not explicitly prohibited.^[122]

Alcohol prohibition frequently followed the establishment of Islamic regimes, such as the Almoravid dynasty in the 11th century and the Almohad Caliphate in the 13th. In many modern Muslim countries, alcohol is strictly forbidden.^[123] Iran had previously had a thriving wine industry that disappeared after the Islamic Revolution in 1979.^[124]

• Classification of wine
• Glossary of wine terms
• Health effects of wine
• History of wine
• List of grape varieties
• Maceration (wine)
• Outline of wine
• Storage of wine
• Viticulture
• Winemaking

• The Guardian & Observer Guide to Wine