State of Vietnam

This article is about the associated state during the Cold War. For the present-day state, see Vietnam. For other states, see Vietnam (disambiguation).
State of Viet-Nam
Quốc-gia Việt-Nam (Vietnamese)
État du Viêt-Nam (French)
1949–1955
Motto: Dân vi quý[1]
"The people are the most important"
Anthem: Thanh niên Hành Khúc
"The March of Youths"
Grand Seal of the State[2]
保大國長

(1949–1954)
The territory controlled by the State of Vietnam after the 1954 Geneva Conference (dark green); territory claimed but not controlled (light green).
StatusAssociated state of the French Union (until 1954)
Independent state (from 1954)
CapitalSaigon[3]
10°48′N 106°39′E / 10.800°N 106.650°E / 10.800; 106.650
Official languagesVietnamese, French
Religion
Folk religions
Buddhism
Confucianism
Catholicism
Caodaism
Hoahaoism
Evangelicalism
Demonym(s)Vietnamese, Vietnamian
GovernmentUnitary semi-monarchy
Chief of State 
• 1949–1955
Bảo Đại
• 1955
Ngô Đình Diệm
Prime Minister 
• 1949–1950
Bảo Đại
• 1950
Nguyễn Phan Long
• 1950–1952
Trần Văn Hữu
• 1952–1953
Nguyễn Văn Tâm
• 1954
Bửu Lộc
• 1954–1955
Ngô Đình Diệm
Historical eraCold War
8 March 1949
• Proclamation
2 July 1949
• Matignon Treaty
4 June 1954
• Partition
21 July 1954
26 October 1955
Currencypiastre
đồng (from 1953)
Preceded by		 Succeeded by
Provisional Central Government of Vietnam
North Vietnam
South Vietnam
Today part ofVietnam

The State of Vietnam (Vietnamese: Quốc gia Việt Nam; chữ Hán: 國家越南; French: État du Viêt-Nam) was a state in Southeast Asia that existed from 1949 until 1955, first as an associated state of the French Union and later as an independent state (from 20 July 1954 to 26 October 1955). The state claimed authority over all of Vietnam during the First Indochina War, although large parts of its remote territory were controlled by the Democratic Republic of Vietnam.

The State of Vietnam was formed in 1949 within the framework of the French Union as a compromise between Vietnamese nationalists and the French, in opposition to the communists.[4][5] It gained international recognition in 1950 and aligned politically with the Western Bloc. Former emperor Bảo Đại became Chief of State. Following the 1954 Geneva Accords between the communist Viet Minh and the French, the State of Vietnam lost its remaining foothold in the northern half of the country, where most rural areas were already controlled by the Viet Minh.[6] Ngô Đình Diệm was appointed prime minister the same year and—after having ousted Bảo Đại in 1955—became president of the Republic of Vietnam.

History

Vietnam after the World War II

See also: Civil conflicts in Vietnam (1945–1949), War in Vietnam (1945–1946), and Provisional Central Government of Vietnam

The 16th parallel was established by the Allies on August 2, 1945, following the Potsdam Conference, dividing the former French Indochina into two military zones: Chinese Nationalist forces occupied the North, and British forces the South, to disarm Japanese troops.[7] The communist-led Viet Minh launched the August Revolution to seek control in Vietnam, and Ho Chi Minh declared the independence of the Democratic Republic of Vietnam (DRV).

Beginning in August 1945, the Viet Minh sought to consolidate power by terrorizing and purging rival Vietnamese nationalist groups and Trotskyist activists.[8][9][10][11] On September 23, the British supported a French coup de force that overthrew the DRV government in Saigon and attempted to reinstate French control over southern Indochina.[12] In 1946, the Franco-Chinese and Ho–Sainteny Agreements enabled French forces to replace the Chinese north of the 16th parallel and facilitated a coexistence between the DRV and the French that strengthened the Viet Minh while undermining the nationalists.[13][14] That summer, the Viet Minh colluded with French forces to eliminate nationalists, targeted for their ardent anti-colonialism.[15][16][8]: 205–207 [17]: 699–700 

With most of the nationalist partisans defeated,[18][19] and negotiations broken down, tensions between the Viet Minh and French authorities erupted into full-scale war in December 1946,[20] a conflict which became entwined with the Cold War. Surviving nationalist partisans and politico-religious groups rallied behind the exiled Bảo Đại to reopen negotiations with France in opposition to communist domination.[21][22]

On June 5, 1948, the Halong Bay Agreements (Accords de la baie d’Along) allowed the foundation of a unified Vietnamese government replacing the governments of Tonkin (North Vietnam) and Annam (Middle Vietnam) associated to France within the French Union. The Associated States of Indochina then also included the neighboring Kingdom of Laos and Kingdom of Cambodia. Cochinchina (South Vietnam), however, had a different status, both as a colony and as an autonomous republic, and its reunification with the rest of Vietnam had to be approved by its local assembly, and then by the French National Assembly. During the transitional period, a Provisional Central Government of Vietnam was proclaimed: Nguyễn Văn Xuân, until then head of the Provisional Government of South Vietnam (as Cochinchina had been known since 1947), became its president, while Bảo Đại waited for a complete reunification to take office.

Associated State (1949–1954)

On May 20, 1949, the French National Assembly approved the reunification of Cochinchina with the rest of Vietnam. The decision took effect on June 14 and the State of Vietnam (SVN) was officially proclaimed on July 2. From 1949 to 1954, the State of Vietnam had partial autonomy from France as an associated state within the French Union.

Bảo Đại and Hồ Chí Minh competed for international and domestic recognition as the legitimate authority over Vietnam. While the State of Vietnam aligned with the anticommunist Western Bloc, the French exploited it to extend their colonial presence and to bolster their standing within NATO.[23] The State of Vietnam received its strongest support from the United States[24] while Hồ's DRV was backed by the People's Republic of China[25] and the Soviet Union[26] (since 1950).

Roughly 60% of Vietnamese territory was under the DRV control in 1952.[27] However, most delta and urban areas with large populations were brought under the control of the SVN.[28] Frustrated with the communist-led Viet Minh becoming increasingly radicalized, many people left its maquis and returned to the cities, a process known in Vietnamese as dinh tê.[29]: 520  Thousands among them came to support the State of Vietnam.[30]

Following the onset of full-scale war between the Viet Minh and France in December 1946, there emerged nationalists who pursued the quest for a ‘Third Force’ that would be both anticommunist and anticolonialist. This stance led them to maintain an uneasy neutrality in the conflict, and they were at times labeled as attentistes,[31]: 435  including Ngô Đình Diệm and certain Đại Việt politicians. With the internationalization of the war in 1950, many of these figures ultimately stepped off the fence and entered the political fray.[32]

The State of Vietnam was not merely a colonial construct, but a fragmented and negotiated state in which sovereignty was unevenly exercised by colonial authorities, local political actors, and religious self-governing entities. Its state transformation was an act of bricolage, cobbled together from layered legacies of the past and evolving contemporary dynamics.[33] The Matignon Treaty on 4 June 1954[34] was seen as granting Vietnam independence from France.[35]: 8  The prominent nationalist Ngo Dinh Diem, who by now no longer believed that attentisme was a viable policy, was appointed by Bảo Đại in June 1954 to lead the Vietnamese government.[31] With the full support of Bảo Đại, Diệm committed himself to rapidly establishing a truly independent state, and formally withdrew the State of Vietnam from the French Union on July 20, 1954.[36]

Partition (1954–55)

Further information: 1954 Geneva Conference

The Geneva Accords, signed between the French and the Viet Minh on 21 July 1954, ended the Indochina War by establishing a temporary division of Vietnam at the 17th parallel, with the DRV in the North and the State of Vietnam in the South, pending nationwide elections scheduled for July 1956.[37] Communist forces entered Hanoi on 10 October 1954, replacing the French Union forces that were withdrawing South. During the 300-day period of relocation, around 120,000 Viet Minh personnel moved North. Meanwhile, at least 500,000 Catholics, about 200,000 Buddhists, and tens of thousands from minority groups moved South, many via Operation Passage to Freedom.[38]

The State of Vietnam[39] and the United States were firmly opposed to the final settlement at Geneva and the partition of Vietnam.[35]: 7–9  In July 1955, Prime Minister Ngo Dinh Diem announced in a broadcast that South Vietnam would not participate in the elections specified in the Geneva Accords, as they had not signed the agreement and therefore were not bound by it.[40][41]

Politics

Provisional Central Government of Vietnam

On May 27, 1948, Nguyễn Văn Xuân, then President of the Republic of Cochinchina, became President of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam (Thủ tướng lâm thời) following the merging of the government of Cochin China and Vietnam in what is sometimes referred as "Pre-Vietnam".

State of Vietnam

On June 14, 1949, Bảo Đại was appointed Chief of State (Quốc trưởng) of the State of Vietnam; he was concurrently Prime Minister for a short while (Kiêm nhiệm Thủ tướng).

On October 26, 1955, the Republic of Vietnam was established and Ngô Đình Diệm became the first President of the Republic.

Leaders

Further information: Leaders of South Vietnam
Name Took office Left office Title
Nguyễn Văn Xuân May 27, 1948 July 1, 1949 President of the Provisional Central Government of Vietnam
1 Bảo Đại July 1, 1949[42] January 21, 1950 Prime Minister; remained Chief of State throughout the State of Vietnam
2 Nguyễn Phan Long January 21, 1950 April 27, 1950 Prime Minister
3 Trần Văn Hữu May 6, 1950 June 3, 1952 Prime Minister
4 Nguyễn Văn Tâm June 23, 1952 December 7, 1953 Prime Minister
5 Bửu Lộc January 11, 1954 July 7, 1954 Prime Minister
6 Ngô Đình Diệm July 7, 1954 October 26, 1955 Prime Minister

1955 referendum, Republic of Vietnam

Main article: 1955 State of Vietnam referendum

In South Vietnam, a referendum was scheduled for 23 October 1955 to determine the future direction of the south, in which the people would choose Diệm or Bảo Đại as the leader of South Vietnam.[43] During the election, Diệm's brother Ngô Đình Nhu and the Personalist Labor Revolutionary Party (commonly known as "Cần Lao Party") supplied Diệm's electoral base in organizing and supervising the elections, especially the propaganda campaign for destroying Bảo Đại's reputation. Supporters of Bảo Đại were not allowed to campaign, and were physically attacked by Nhu's workers.[44] Official results showed 98.2 per cent of voters favoured Diệm, an implausibly high result that was condemned as fraudulent. The total number of votes far exceeded the number of registered voters by over 380,000, further evidence that the referendum was heavily rigged.[44][45] For example, only 450,000 voters were registered in Saigon, but 605,025 were said to have voted for Diệm. On 26 October, Diệm proclaimed the Republic of Vietnam—widely known as South Vietnam—whose reformed army, with American assistance, pursued the conflict with North Vietnam; the Viet Cong replaced the Viet Minh, in the Vietnam War.[45]

Military

Vietnamese National Army

Main article: Vietnamese National Army

Following the signing of the 1949 Élysée Accords in Paris, Bảo Đại was able to create a National Army for defense purposes.

It fought under the State of Vietnam's banner and leadership and was commanded by General Nguyễn Văn Hinh.

Economy

Currency

The currency used within the French Union was the French Indochinese piastre. Notes were issued and managed by the "Issue Institute of the States of Cambodia, Laos and Vietnam" (Institut d’Emission des Etats du Cambodge, du Laos et du Viêt-Nam). In 1953, Vietnam introduced its own currency.

Foreign relations

By 1950, a number of countries recognized the State of Vietnam:[46]

Membership in international organizations

On 21 October 1949, the United Nations Economic Commission for Asia and the Far East, having considered the applications of both the State of Vietnam and the Democratic Republic of Vietnam, accepted the SVN as an associate member.[47] As of 1952, while applying for United Nations membership, the State of Vietnam was a member of the following organizations:[48]

Administrative divisions

Three principal regions

See also: Northern, Central and Southern Vietnam

Following the creation of the State of Vietnam and the establishment of its government, the Chief of State Bảo Đại signed the two ordinances related to the administration and local governance of the State of Vietnam, namely Ordinance No. 1 ("Organisation and Operation of civil authorities in Vietnam") and Ordinance No. 2 ("Statutes of Government office").[49] These ordinances divided the State of Vietnam into three principal administrative regions, namely Bắc Việt (former Tonkin), Trung Việt (former Annam), and Nam Việt (former Cochinchina), the local government of each administrative region was headed by a Thủ hiến (Governour).[49] Since 1948, the three regions had also been referred to as Bắc Phần, Trung Phần, and Nam Phần.

On 4 August 1954 the government of the State of Vietnam enacted Ordinance No. 21 which abolished the autonomous status of the three regions and abolished the post of regional governour, replacing them with central government representatives in all parts of its territory.[49]

Domain of the Crown

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The Domain of the Crown (Vietnamese: Hoàng triều Cương thổ / 皇朝疆土; French: Domaine de la Couronne) was originally the Nguyễn dynasty's geopolitical concept for its protectorates and principalities where the Kinh ethnic group didn't make up the majority, later it became a type of administrative unit of the State of Vietnam.[50] It was officially established on 15 April 1950 and dissolved on 11 March 1955.[50] In the areas of the Domain of the Crown Chief of State Bảo Đại was still officially (and legally) titled as the "Emperor of the Nguyễn dynasty".[51]

The Domain of the Crown contained the following five provinces established from the former Montagnard country of South Indochina:[51][52]

  1. Đồng Nai Thượng
  2. Lâm Viên
  3. Pleiku
  4. Darlac
  5. Kontum

In Bắc phần it contained the following provinces:[51][52]

  1. Hòa Bình (Mường Autonomous Territory)
  2. Phong Thổ (Thái Autonomous Territory)
  3. Lai Châu (Thái Autonomous Territory)
  4. Sơn La (Thái Autonomous Territory)
  5. Lào Kay (Mèo Autonomous Territory)
  6. Hà Giang (Mèo Autonomous Territory)
  7. Bắc Kạn (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
  8. Cao Bằng (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
  9. Lạng Sơn (Thổ Autonomous Territory)
  10. Hải Ninh (Nùng Autonomous Territory)
  11. Móng Cái (Nùng Autonomous Territory)

See also

References

  1. ^ Hoàng Cơ Thụy. Việt sử khảo luận. Paris, 2002. Trang 2299.
  2. ^ Letter with photograph, signature, and Grand Seal of the State from his majesty the Chief of State Bảo Đại to Madame Jeanne Leveque in New York City (1952).
  3. ^ The capital of the State of Vietnam was moved from Hanoi to Saigon on July 25, 1949, see: "25 Juillet 1949". Chronique d'Indochine: Monthly News Bulletin from Indochina. Troisième Année (8). 10 September 1949.
  4. ^ Hammer, Ellen J. "The Bao Dai Experiment". Pacific Affairs, vol. 23, no. 1, Pacific Affairs, University of British Columbia, 1950, p. 55, doi:10.2307/2753754.
  5. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 241–245.
  6. ^ Fall, Bernard B. (December 1956). "Indochina--The Last Year of the War". Military Review. 36 (9). US Army Command and General Staff College: 56.
  7. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "16th parallel". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  8. ^ a b Guillemot, François (2004). "Au coeur de la fracture vietnamienne : l'élimination de l'opposition nationaliste et anticolonialiste dans le Nord du Vietnam (1945–1946)". In Goscha, Christopher E.; de Tréglodé, Benoît (eds.). Naissance d'un État-Parti: Le Viêt Nam depuis 1945. Paris: Les Indes savantes. pp. 175–216. ISBN 9782846540643.
  9. ^ Marr 2013, pp. 383–441.
  10. ^ Kort 2017, pp. 62–63, 81–85.
  11. ^ Tran 2022, pp. 24–30.
  12. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "23 September 1945". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  13. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 204–208.
  14. ^ Holcombe 2020, pp. 35, 38–44.
  15. ^ Kort 2017, pp. 83–84.
  16. ^ Reilly 2018, pp. 175–177.
  17. ^ Tran, Nu-Anh (2023). "Denouncing the 'Việt Cộng': Tales of revolution and betrayal in the Republic of Vietnam". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 53 (4): 686–708. doi:10.1017/S0022463422000790.
  18. ^ Kort 2017, p. 85.
  19. ^ Tran 2022, p. 27.
  20. ^ Asselin 2024, pp. 73–81.
  21. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 238–241.
  22. ^ Reilly 2018, pp. 187–188.
  23. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 244–248.
  24. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Aid, American". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  25. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Aid, Chinese communist". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  26. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Aid, Soviet". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  27. ^ Pierre Montagnon, L'Indochine française, Tallandier, 2016, p. 325
  28. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Collaboration". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  29. ^ Vu, Tuong (2009). "'It's time for the Indochinese Revolution to show its true colours': The radical turn of Vietnamese politics in 1948". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 40 (3): 519–542. doi:10.1017/S0022463409990051.
  30. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Crossovers". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  31. ^ a b Miller, Edward (2004). "Vision, Power and Agency: The Ascent of Ngô Đình Diệm, 1945–54". Journal of Southeast Asian Studies. 35 (3): 433–458. doi:10.1017/S0022463404000220.
  32. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Attentisme". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  33. ^ Reilly, Brett (2016). "The Sovereign States of Vietnam, 1945–1955". Journal of Vietnamese Studies. 11 (3–4): 103–139. doi:10.1525/jvs.2016.11.3-4.103.
  34. ^ "Vietnam: Traité d'indépendance du 4 juin 1954", Digithèque MJP.
  35. ^ a b United States Department of Defense, ed. (2011). "Origins of the Insurgency in South Vietnam, 1954–1960" (PDF). National Archives and Records Administration. The Pentagon Papers.
  36. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 286.
  37. ^ Goscha, Christopher E. (2011). "Geneva Accords". Historical Dictionary of the Indochina War (1945–1954): An International and Interdisciplinary Approach. NIAS Press. ISBN 9788776940638.
  38. ^ Goscha 2016, pp. 280.
  39. ^ Cable, James (1986). The Geneva Conference of 1954 on Indochina. Macmillan Press. pp. 120, 123. ISBN 9781349182909.
  40. ^ "Lời tuyên bố truyền thanh của Thủ tướng Chánh phủ ngày 16-7-1955 về hiệp định Genève và vấn đề thống nhất đất nước"; "Tuyên ngôn của Chánh phủ Quốc gia Việt Nam ngày 9-8-1955 về vấn đề thống nhất lãnh thổ". Con đường Chính nghĩa: Độc lập, Dân chủ (in Vietnamese). Vol. II. Saigon: Sở Báo chí Thông tin, Phủ Tổng thống. 1956. pp. 11–13.
  41. ^ Ang Cheng Guan (1997). Vietnamese Communists' Relations with China and the Second Indochina War (1956–62). Jefferson, North Carolina: McFarland. p. 11. ISBN 978-0-7864-0404-9.
  42. ^ "1er Juillet 1949". Chronique d'Indochine: Monthly News Bulletin from Indochina. Troisième Année (7). 10 August 1949.
  43. ^ Moyar, p. 54.
  44. ^ a b Karnow, pp. 223–24
  45. ^ a b Jacobs, p. 95.
  46. ^ Phạm Văn Sơn (1951). Việt Nam tranh đấu sử (2nd ed.). Hanoi: Vũ Hùng. p. 269.
  47. ^ "Admission of the State of Viet-Nam as an associate member of the Commission: Resolution of 21 October 1949 (E/CN.11/232 Rev. 1)". In "E/CN.11/RES/81 (V), UN Official Documents", 23/05/1950.
  48. ^ "Memorandum, Letter dated 7 August 1952 from the Minister for Foreign Affairs of Vietnam addressed to the Secretary-General." In "A/2168, UN Official Documents", 03/09/1952.
  49. ^ a b c Royal Woodblocks of Nguyễn Dynasty - World documentary heritage (2021). "Significant collections § Fonds of the Phủ Thủ hiến Trung Việt or Office of the Governor of Trung Viet". mocban.vn. The National Archives Center No. 4 (State Records and Archives Department of Vietnam). Retrieved 30 March 2021.
  50. ^ a b Anh Thái Phượng. Trăm núi ngàn sông: Tập I. Gretna, LA: Đường Việt Hải ngoại, 2003. Page: 99. (in Vietnamese).
  51. ^ a b c Lê Đình Chi. Người Thượng Miền Nam Việt Nam. Gardena, California: Văn Mới, 2006. Pages: 401-449. (in Vietnamese).
  52. ^ a b UÔNG THÁI BIỂU (9 October 2020). "Hoàng đế mãn triều và "Hoàng triều Cương thổ"" (in Vietnamese). Nhân Dân (Communist Party of Vietnam). Retrieved 13 April 2021.

Bibliography

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