Rincón Bomba massacre

Rincón Bomba Massacre
National Gendarmerie agents posing with kidnapped Pilagá children and adolescents during the massacre
LocationLa Bomba Hamlet,
Las Lomitas,
Formosa, Argentina
Coordinates24°41′27″S 60°35′05″W / 24.69083°S 60.58472°W / -24.69083; -60.58472
DateOctober 10–30, 1947
TargetPilagá people
Attack type
Shootings, rapes, aerial attack, and enslavement
WeaponsPistols, rifles, machine guns, ground attack aircraft
Deaths750–1,000[1]
Perpetrators National Gendarmerie
Argentine Air Force
MotiveGenocide (judicially classified as such in 2020)
AccusedCarlos Smachetti (indicted), Leandro Santos Costas (charged), Emilio Fernández Castellanos, José M. Aliaga Pueyrredón, Néstor Leoncio Perloff, Edmundo Zalazar, Francisco Bagardi, Isabelino Ezcurra, Abelardo Sergio Como (see section Perpetrators, suspects, and participants)

The Rincón Bomba Massacre, also known as the Pilagá Massacre, La Bomba Massacre, Pilagá Genocide, or Rincón Bomba,[2] was a genocide and crime against humanity committed by the Argentine state against indigenous peoples in 1947. The National Gendarmerie, with support from an Argentine Air Force aircraft and National Territories Police, targeted the Pilagá people in La Bomba Hamlet, near Las Lomitas, in what was then the National Territory of Formosa (now Formosa Province), between October 10 and 30, 1947, during the first presidency of Juan Perón. The atrocities included executions, disappearances, torture, rape, kidnappings, and forced labor, with an estimated 750 to 1,000 deaths.[3][4][5]

In 2019, the event was judicially recognized as a crime against humanity, and in 2020, it was classified as a genocide.[3] The massacre was largely unaddressed by the state and mainstream Argentine society for decades, preserved only in the Pilagá people's oral memory.[6] In 2005, the Pilagá People's Federation sued the Argentine state, securing judicial recognition and the state's obligation to commemorate the event and provide moral and material reparations.[7]

Background

The Pilagá people are an indigenous group in present-day Argentina, historically inhabiting the southern and central Gran Chaco plain. They resisted Spanish colonization of the Americas and remained independent until the late 19th century, after the Spanish American wars of independence expelled Spanish forces from most of the Americas.

In the late 1860s, the Argentine state launched conquest campaigns against indigenous peoples in Patagonia and the Gran Chaco, known as the Conquest of the Desert. In 1917, President Hipólito Yrigoyen of the Radical Civic Union (UCR) declared the conquest of Chaco complete, though military and "pacification" operations persisted for decades.[8] Defeated Gran Chaco peoples were subjected to forced labor in the national territories of Chaco and Formosa, where residents lacked voting rights. Some scholars classify this dispossession as a genocide.[9][10]

Notable atrocities include the Napalpí Massacre of 1924, where police under Governor Fernando Centeno, supervised by President Marcelo Torcuato de Alvear (UCR), killed 500 to 1,000 Qom and Mocoví people.[11]

The 1994 constitutional reform recognized indigenous peoples' pre-existence and rights to ancestral lands and culture, but many provinces have yet to return these territories, often held by large landowners or private companies.[12]

In 1936, the massacre with similar characteristics occurred in Oberá, Misiones Province, targeted Russian, Ukrainian, and Polish immigrants labeled "stateless." Initially attributed to "communist elements" by police, investigations in the 21st century confirmed police responsibility.[1]

Events

El Tabacal: mass layoffs and migration

In late April 1947, hundreds of Qom, Pilagá, Mocoví, Chorote, and Wichí families from the National Territory of Formosa were hired by El Tabacal Sugar Mill in Salta Province for the sugarcane harvest starting in May.[13] Workers traveled hundreds of kilometers on foot. The company paid only 2.50 pesos per day instead of the agreed 6 pesos, prompting protests. In response, all contracted workers were dismissed.[13][14]

This left the workers without resources, forcing a mass migration to Las Lomitas, a town in Formosa 450 kilometers from El Tabacal, where the 18th National Gendarmerie Squadron was stationed. They arrived in mid-May.[15][16]

At the time, Formosa was governed by Rolando de Hertelendy, a landowner appointed by President Perón in 1946, who faced opposition from locals and the Peronist press for alleged oligarchic ties.[17]

Arrival in Las Lomitas

In mid-May, a large group settled in Rincón Bomba, or La Bomba, near Las Lomitas, in an area crossed by a dry ravine known locally as a "madrejón." Led by healer Tonkiet (Luciano Córdoba) and caciques Oñedie (Paulo "Pablito" Navarro) and Nola Lagadick, the group grew as more indigenous people arrived, drawn by Tonkiet's healing acts. Estimates of the population range from 1,000 to several thousand.[18]

Initially, the local population and the Gendarmerie Squadron, led by Emilio Fernández Castellanos, showed support. However, tensions rose over time between the local "white" residents and the indigenous group.[15][16]

Every afternoon, the group sang, danced, and played drums until dawn, with music audible from afar. The presence of unfamiliar families, children hunting frogs, and stray dogs disrupted life in Las Lomitas.

— Mapelman 2015:99[19]

The situation worsened as many suffered from malnutrition, with three deaths reported, including the mother of cacique Pablito.[15] In September, Governor Rolando de Hertelendy informed Minister of the Interior Ángel Borlenghi, who notified President Perón. Perón ordered three train cars of food, clothing, and medicine sent to Formosa. The cargo, under the responsibility of Miguel Ortiz of the National Directorate of Indigenous Affairs, arrived in late September, but two-thirds spoiled due to delays in delivery.[15]

Escalation

Spoiled food caused mass poisoning, killing at least 50 people, mostly children and elders, in early October.[20] Many believed the food was deliberately poisoned.[21] Tonkiet's influence grew, with extended rituals intensifying local rejection, including opposition to burying the dead in the town cemetery.[20][22]

Children roamed Las Lomitas begging for food, and residents grew frustrated with the noise and gatherings. They questioned why so many had come to a place with little to offer.

— Survivor Salqoe, Mapelman 2015:102[19]

Local press fueled fears of an indigenous "malón" (raid), prompting residents to demand action.[22] Commander Fernández Castellanos responded by establishing a security cordon of about 100 gendarmes around the camp, with four machine gun nests, and confiscated the group's weapons.[20][23]

A 1991 Gendarmerie publication included testimonies from four gendarmes, revealing prevalent racism:[24]

These Indians were almost like savages, animals. And not even animals should be mistreated.[24][25]

The massacre

On October 10, gendarmes prepared to attack the Pilagá camp. Children working in the squadron’s kitchen were warned by gendarmes:

Corporal Londero told me to warn my parents that the weapons were ready. 'Tell them to pack and leave to avoid being shot. Return here, and I’ll hide you.'

— Setkokie’n (Melitón Domínguez), Mapelman 2015:139[26]

That afternoon, cacique Pablito requested a meeting with Fernández Castellanos, arranged by Gendarme Teófilo Ramón Cruz in an open field with 200–400 gendarmes present.[27] At around 6:00 p.m., Pablito approached, followed by men, women, and children carrying portraits of Perón and Eva Perón.[20]

Gunfire erupted from machine guns, carbines, and pistols. Fernández Castellanos ordered a ceasefire, unaware that second-in-command José M. Aliaga Pueyrredón had secretly deployed additional machine guns across the ravine.[28] Survivor Ni’daciye recalled:

Around 6 or 7 p.m., soldiers began shooting. Children, women, and elders fell. A woman carrying her baby was shot in the neck. I saw many die but remained calm.

— Ni’daciye, Mapelman 2015:146[29]

Victims included "grandmother Guamaena," "grandmother Neeto," "grandmother Pochaae," Sehent, Qetee (Susana), Lichee, Meto, and Quemana.[30] Killings continued for weeks, with over 750 deaths from wounds, thirst, hunger, and further shootings. Rape was used as a weapon, targeting adults and children.[31]

Survivors reported executions and burnings in Campo del Cielo, Pozo del Tigre, and other sites, with 400–500 killed, plus 200 disappeared and 50 poisoned.[1] Naeron (Pedro) testified that his uncles were shot and burned at Pozo Pilagá.[32] Ketae saw elders burned alive near Pozo del Tigre.[33] A local witness reported two Pilagá couples shot and burned while alive.[33] Seecho’le (Norma Navarrete) witnessed Aliaga Pueyrredón rape a 14-year-old girl in exchange for sparing her group.[34]

From October 15 to 23, a Junkers Ju 52 aircraft (T-153) equipped with a 7.65mm Colt machine gun joined the repression, operating from Las Lomitas.[35][36] The Northern Zone Gendarmerie Commander, Julio Cruz Villafañe, was aboard.[37][38]

A 2005 investigation identified a 40-km "trail of death" from Rincón Bomba’s mass grave to La Felicidad Hamlet, kilometer 30, and Muñiz Colony.[39] Captured survivors were sent to indigenous colonies in Francisco Muñiz and Bartolomé de las Casas, subjected to forced labor under Gendarmerie oversight.[40][41]

On October 16, Gendarmerie Director Natalio Faverio reported Ensign Leandro Santos Costa was wounded in an alleged indigenous attack, with fifteen indigenous deaths, but provided no names or burial details.[42]

Cover-up

On October 11, a confidential Ministry of the Interior document reported an indigenous "uprising," followed by troop mobilization.[37] National newspapers, including La Nación, La Prensa, and Noticias Gráficas, labeled it a "malón," alleging the Pilagá used firearms and killed a "Christian" woman.[43] Only El Intransigente reported rumors of a Gendarmerie cover-up.[44] The event was largely ignored until the 21st century.

In June 2005, the Pilagá Federation filed criminal and civil lawsuits against the Argentine state for crimes against humanity, genocide, and reparations.[45] The criminal case closed due to the accused's deaths. The civil case succeeded in 2019 and 2020, with an appeal to the Supreme Court over land return and reparations amounts.[46]

Lawsuit

On April 1, 2005, the Pilagá Federation demanded state acknowledgment of the 1947 events, including truth disclosure, a declaratory judgment, a public apology, victim commemorations, accurate historical records, and preventive policies.[47]

Filed in December 2005 by lawyers Carlos Alberto Díaz and Julio C. García in Formosa Federal Court under Judge Mario Bruno Quinteros, the lawsuit cited the non-applicability of the statute of limitations for crimes against humanity.[48] A forensic team found 27 bodies consistent with the reported events.[49]

Testimonies

Eight survivors, children at the time, testified in the criminal case: Cristina Duarte (9), Norma Navarrete (15), Ambrocia Rosario González (27), Rogelia Giménez (7), Eduardo Alegría (Ayoche), Martin Pedro (Pilagá Naeron, 13), Ernesto Gómez (Kadeqakien, 14), and Pedro Palavecino (10 or 12).[50] In the civil case, Clara Olmos testified in her native language with an interpreter.[51] Forensic reports and Valeria Mapelman’s Octubre Pilagá were also considered.[52]

The events of La Bomba were largely ignored by official history but preserved in the Pilagá’s collective memory.

— Judgment, folio 19

Discovery of mass graves

In 2006, investigators found 27 bodies near Las Lomitas.[53][54]

Perpetrators, suspects, and participants

The 13th National Gendarmerie Squadron, led by Emilio Fernández Castellanos with José M. Aliaga Pueyrredón as second-in-command, was responsible. A 1991 Gendarmerie publication named four participants: Néstor Leoncio Perloff, Edmundo Zalazar, Francisco Bagardi, and Isabelino Ezcurra.[25]

Leandro Santos Costas, head of the Heavy Machine Gun Section, was charged in 2011 but died before trial.[55][56] Carlos Smachetti, co-pilot of the Ju-52 T-153, was indicted in 2015 but died in 2017.[57][55]

First-instance ruling

In 2019, Formosa Federal Court No. 1 ruled the massacre a crime against humanity, ordering state reparations.[58][59]

The victims faced a state indifferent to their justice demands, enduring decades of silence and neglect.

— Folio 14

Reparations included:

  • Non-monetary:
  1. Publish the ruling on the Ministry of Justice and National Institute of Indigenous Affairs websites for three years.
  2. Publish in the Official Gazette.
  3. Designate October 10 as a commemorative date, coordinated with the Pilagá Federation.
  4. Erect a monument at the massacre site.
  5. Establish "Reparatory Educational Scholarships for the La Bomba Massacre" (12 university, 30 secondary).
  • Monetary:
  1. Seventy-two minimum wages annually (approximately $18,750) for ten years to the Pilagá Federation.
  2. Six hundred thirty minimum wages annually (approximately $150,000) for ten years for community investments.

The Pilagá Federation appealed, citing insufficient reparations and lack of genocide classification.

Second-instance ruling

In 2020, the second-instance ruling classified the massacre as a crime against humanity and genocide but upheld the reparations amount, leading to a Supreme Court appeal.

Literature

  • Octubre Pilagá: memorias y archivos de la masacre de La Bomba by Valeria Mapelman compiles victim testimonies, historical context, and archival evidence of the massacre and survivor confinement. The book builds on her 2005 documentary research.[60]
  • Historia de la crueldad argentina: Julio A. Roca y el genocidio de los pueblos originarios (2010), coordinated by Osvaldo Bayer, analyzes the Napalpí (1924) and La Bomba (1947) massacres.[61]
  • Rincón Bomba: lectura de una matanza (2009) by Orlando Van Bredam fictionalizes a soldier’s confession, blending indigenous mysticism with domestic and conspiratorial elements.[62]
  • Cicatrices del país by Pedro M. Barrios merges fiction and reality to depict Pilagá suffering and resistance.[63]

Filmography

Octubre pilagá, relatos sobre el silencio (80 min) and La historia en la memoria (18 min), both by Valeria Mapelman (2010), document victim and witness memories. The former won awards at the 2010 Buenos Aires International Festival of Independent Cinema and the Ícaro International Festival in Guatemala.[64][65]

See also

References

  1. ^ a b c Trinchero 2009, p. 56.
  2. ^ Giménez, Nora (December 13, 2024). "Milei cierra los ojos: la emergencia indígena persiste" [Milei closes his eyes: the indigenous emergency persists]. Página/12 (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  3. ^ a b Pellegrini, Brian (March 3, 2020). "Masacre de Rincón Bomba: la justicia federal confirmó que se trató de un "genocidio" contra indígenas pilagá" [Rincón Bomba Massacre: Federal justice confirmed it was a "genocide" against Pilagá indigenous people] (in Spanish). Archived from the original on July 28, 2021. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  4. ^ Brodersen, Juan (December 17, 2015). "La masacre pilagá, una de las historias más tristes y menos conocidas de la Argentina" [The Pilagá massacre, one of Argentina's saddest and least known stories]. Clarín (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  5. ^ Alvado, María Alicia (April 29, 2023). "Una metodología del exterminio: las masacres de Rincón Bomba y Napalpí" [A methodology of extermination: the Rincón Bomba and Napalpí massacres]. elDiarioAR.com (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  6. ^ Ilardo, Corina (2015). "Cine e Historia: Octubre Pilagá, un documental sobre la masacre de Rincón Bomba" [Cinema and History: Octubre Pilagá, a documentary about the Rincón Bomba massacre]. Toma Uno (in Spanish) (4). Escuela de Ciencias de la Información, Universidad Nacional de Córdoba.
  7. ^ "Fallo inédito para reparar una matanza indígena de 1947 en Formosa. La masacre pilagá fue declarada crimen de lesa humanidad" [Unprecedented ruling to repair a 1947 indigenous massacre in Formosa. The Pilagá massacre was declared a crime against humanity]. Página 12 (in Spanish). July 5, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  8. ^ Martínez, Carlos (2005). Nuestros paisanos los indios. Buenos Aires: Emece. cited in "Resistencia Qom" [Qom Resistance]. Pueblos originarios (in Spanish).
  9. ^ Policastro Carolina; Villordo Marina (2007). "¿Matanzas o Prácticas Genocidas? Problematización en torno al accionar represivo del Estado Nacional: Napalpi (1924) y Rincón Bomba (1947)" [Massacres or Genocidal Practices? Problematization regarding the repressive actions of the National State: Napalpí (1924) and Rincón Bomba (1947)] (PDF). XI Jornadas Interescuelas/Departamentos de Historia (in Spanish). San Miguel de Tucumán: Departamento de Historia, Facultad de Filosofía y Letras, Universidad de Tucumán.
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  12. ^ Demicheli Calcagno, Sebastián; Canet, Viviana; Virosta, Leticia, eds. (2015). Derechos de los Pueblos Indígenas en la Argentina, una compilación (PDF) (in Spanish). Ciudad Autónoma de Buenos Aires: Ministerio de Justicia y Derechos Humanos de la Nación. ISBN 978-987-1407-96-5.
  13. ^ a b Trinchero 2009, p. 53.
  14. ^ Policastro & Villordo 2007, p. 4.
  15. ^ a b c d Trinchero 2009, p. 54.
  16. ^ a b Policastro & Villordo 2007, pp. 4–5.
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  18. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 22.
  19. ^ a b Judgment 2019, p. 23.
  20. ^ a b c d Trinchero 2009, p. 55.
  21. ^ Kaplan & Rioboo 2007, p. 13.
  22. ^ a b D'Addario 2013.
  23. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 28.
  24. ^ a b "Último alzamiento indígena: Cuatro testimonios de un hecho aún comentado por los viejos pobladores de la frontera Norte" [Last indigenous uprising: Four testimonies of an event still discussed by old residents of the northern frontier]. Gendarmería Nacional (in Spanish). XXVII (120): 17. March 1991.
  25. ^ a b Judgment 2019, p. 20.
  26. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 27.
  27. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 29.
  28. ^ Trinchero 2009, pp. 55–56.
  29. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 31.
  30. ^ Judgment 2019, pp. 30–31.
  31. ^ Mapelman, Valeria (May 24, 2014). La historia en la memoria (2010) (in Spanish). Retrieved May 25, 2016.
  32. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 34.
  33. ^ a b Judgment 2019, p. 36.
  34. ^ Judgment 2019, pp. 37–38.
  35. ^ Meyer, Adriana (July 6, 2019). "Etnocidio del pueblo pilagá: condenan al Estado por masacrar a cientos de indígenas en 1947 Fallo histórico e inédito" [Ethnocide of the Pilagá people: State condemned for massacring hundreds of indigenous people in 1947 Historic and unprecedented ruling]. La Izquierda Diario (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  36. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 41.
  37. ^ a b Martínez y Larghi. "Reseña Histórica de la Asoc. de Tripulantes Aéreos (ATTA)" [Historical Review of the Air Crew Association (ATTA)] (PDF). Asociación ATTA (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on September 23, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  38. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 39.
  39. ^ "Aparecen nuevos cadáveres en Rincón Bomba" [New bodies appear in Rincón Bomba]. Chaco Día Por Día (in Spanish). August 17, 2006. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  40. ^ Musante, Marcelo (2015). "Reducciones Indígenas. Un fantasma perdido entre archivos y relatos historiográficos" [Indigenous Reductions. A ghost lost between archives and historiographical accounts] (PDF). Universidad de Buenos Aires (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on July 1, 2016. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  41. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 35.
  42. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 33.
  43. ^ "Masacre de Rincón Bomba: histórico fallo a favor de las comunidades pilagá" [Rincón Bomba Massacre: historic ruling in favor of the Pilagá communities]. Equipo Nacional de Pastoral Aborigen (in Spanish). July 5, 2019. Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  44. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 42.
  45. ^ Wasylyk Fedyszak, María Sol (December 28, 2005). "La masacre de un pueblo originario" [The massacre of an indigenous people]. Página/12 (in Spanish). Retrieved March 15, 2021.
  46. ^ López Oribe, Agustina (March 3, 2020). "La justicia confirma el fallo histórico por la Masacre Pilagá y comienza a hablar en términos de 'genocidio'" [Justice confirms the historic ruling on the Pilagá Massacre and begins to speak in terms of 'genocide'] (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  47. ^ "AUTOS Y VISTOS: Estos autos caratulados: "FEDERACION DE COMUNIDADES INDIGENAS DEL PUEBLO PILAGA c/ PEN s/ DAÑOS Y PERJUICIOS"; N° FRE 21000173/2006, venidos a despacho para dictar sentencia" [AUTOS AND SEEN: These autos entitled: “FEDERATION OF INDIGENOUS COMMUNITIES OF THE PILAGA PEOPLE v. PEN s/ DAMAGES AND LOSSES”; N° FRE 21000173/2006, come to office for sentencing] (PDF) (in Spanish). Archived from the original (PDF) on 2021-05-02.
  48. ^ Lozza, Arturo M. "La masacre de Rincón Bomba" [The Rincón Bomba Massacre]. Comisión Provincial de Derechos Humanos de Corrientes (in Spanish). Archived from the original on December 24, 2011. Retrieved April 15, 2016.
  49. ^ Red de Investigadores sobre Genocidio y Política Indígena en Argentina: Historia de la crueldad argentina: Julio A. Roca y el genocidio de los pueblos originarios, coordinado y prologado por Osvaldo Bayer. Buenos Aires: El Tugurio, 2010.
  50. ^ Judgment 2019, pp. 16–18.
  51. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 15.
  52. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 17.
  53. ^ Wasylyk Fedyszak, María Sol (March 18, 2006). "Una masacre aborigen con comprobación científica" [An indigenous massacre with scientific confirmation]. Página/12 (in Spanish). Retrieved March 15, 2016.
  54. ^ "Formosa: hallan 27 cadáveres de indígenas" [Formosa: 27 indigenous bodies found]. La Nación (in Spanish). March 17, 2006. Retrieved March 15, 2016.
  55. ^ a b Vidal, Mario (October 10, 2017). "Formosa: 70 años de una masacre" [Formosa: 70 years of a massacre]. Infobae (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2025.
  56. ^ Ahumada, Ricardo (October 10, 2015). "Ratifican que la masacre contra la etnia pilagá es delito de lesa humanidad" [It is confirmed that the massacre against the Pilagá ethnic group is a crime against humanity]. Infojus (in Spanish). Retrieved June 9, 2015.
  57. ^ Judgment 2019, p. 16.
  58. ^ Aranda, Darío (July 6, 2019). "Una masacre de lesa humanidad" [A crime against humanity massacre]. Página/12 (in Spanish). Retrieved March 15, 2019.
  59. ^ Pedrosa, Mariano (July 6, 2019). "Fallo histórico a favor del pueblo pilagá por la masacre de Rincón Bomba" [Historic ruling in favor of the Pilagá people for the Rincón Bomba Massacre]. Tiempo Argentino (in Spanish). Archived from the original on November 26, 2020. Retrieved March 15, 2019.
  60. ^ Mapelman, Valeria (2015). Octubre Pilagá: memorias de la masacre de La Bomba (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: Tren en Movimiento.
  61. ^ Madero, Marcelo; Mapelman, Valeria (2010). Historia de la crueldad argentina: Julio A. Roca y el genocidio de los pueblos originarios (in Spanish). Buenos Aires: El Tugurio.
  62. ^ Van Bredam, Orlando (2009). Rincón Bomba: lectura de la matanza (in Spanish).
  63. ^ Barrios, Pedro. Cicatrices del país (in Spanish).
  64. ^ “Octubre los pilagáos”, complete video published on YouTube
  65. ^ La historia en la memoria, Valeria Mapelman, documentary (18 min)

Bibliography

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