List of early Christian women presbyters

This list of early Christian women presbyters Christian female figures from the 1st–7th centuries CE. In the first two centuries, presbyters held fluid roles, including spiritual leadership and liturgical duties, with women participating widely. Archaeological evidence, such as epitaphs from Phrygia, Thera, and Salona, and texts like the Testamentum Domini confirm women served as presbyterae (female elders) in mainstream churches.

By the 4th century, institutional opposition arose, including bans by the Synod of Laodicea (c. 363–364 CE) and Pope Gelasius I’s condemnation (494 CE) of women ministering at altars. Despite this, regional councils (e.g., Nîmes, 394 CE) and later inscriptions suggest women retained roles in monastic and pastoral settings. Scholars debate whether titles like presbytera or sacerdota (priestess) denote sacramental authority or functional leadership, as modern definitions of ordination differ from early practices.

Entries include historically attested individuals, groups, and debated cases, organized by region, period, and evidence type (inscriptions, conciliar texts, patristic sources).

History

Main articles: Presbytera and Ordination of women § Christianity

Evolving role

In the 1st century, presbyters were informal elders guiding Christian communities alongside apostles and bishops.[1] By the 2nd century, they formed a formal ministerial order, advising bishops on church discipline and affairs, with delegated spiritual authority.[1] During the first two centuries, the office of presbyter was not defined by gender, nor was it limited solely to priestly functions like presiding over the Eucharist. In this period, both male and female presbyters undertook a wide array of responsibilities.[2] From the 3rd century, presbyters took on pastoral and liturgical roles, leading local churches, resembling modern priests by the 5th–6th centuries.[1] Early ordination was functional, not sacramental (a 12th–13th-century concept), enabling women to serve as presbyters or deacons.[3] Some presbyterae were active ministers, others honorary priests’ wives. Inscriptions from Italy, Poitiers, and Croatia (4th–6th centuries) and papal records up to the 12th century show women leading liturgies and serving at altars.[4] Gary Macy notes that modern sacramental standards misjudge early female ordinations.[3]

Point of contention

From the 4th century, female presbyters were debated as the orthodox church opposed groups like Montanists.[5] Epiphanius of Salamis (ca. 374–377) linked presbytides to heretics, denying their sacramental roles.[6] Yet, the Synod of Laodicea (4th century) banned presbytidas ordinations, implying prior orthodox acceptance.[7] Archaeological evidence corroborates this: mainstream Christian epitaphs name women as presbytis/presbytera in Uşak (Phrygia), Thera (Aegean), and Salona (Dalmatia).[8] Late in the 5th century Pope Gelasius I protested that women in southern Italy were “serving at the sacred altars” and performing liturgical ministries reserved to men. His intervention marks the beginning of a gradual but decisive restriction of female presbyteral practice in the West.[9]

List of early Christian women presbyters

Name Period of Activity Region of Activity Description and Legacy
Ammion fl. 200–210 CE[10] Phrygia Ammion the Presbyter is honored in a third-century tombstone from Uçak, Phrygia, inscribed with "Bishop Diogas in memory of Ammion the Presbytera," part of a series connected to Bishop Diogas, whose leadership is dated to the second quarter of the third century. The term "presbytera" likely denotes an official church role, though it could imply an elder or comparative status. Elsa Gibson suggests Ammion was a Montanist presbyter, based on reports of women presbyters in Montanist communities, but the lack of specific Montanist terms and doubts from scholars like August Strobel and Marc Waelkens make her affiliation with Montanism or the broader Church unclear.[11][12] However, there is almost complete scholarly consensus that Ammion was a woman presbyter, rather than an elderly woman or the spouse of a presbyter or bishop.[13] She died sometime after Diogas became bishop around 180 CE but before his death between 210 and 215 CE. Likewise, Ammion lived, and perhaps even died, before the close of the second century.[14]
Artemidora fl. 2nd–3rd century Aegyptus Artemidora the Presbytera is named on a second- or third-century mummy label from Egypt, inscribed with "(Mummy) of Artemidora, daughter of Mikkalos, mother Paniskiaina, presbyter, slept in the Lord." Part of François Baratte and Bernard Boyaval’s collection of 1211 mummies, this label follows an abbreviated Greek formula: name, parents, religious title, and Christian burial phrase, with a nomen sacrum confirming its unique Christian context. The abbreviation "πρεσβ" (presbyter) likely denotes Artemidora’s role as a church leader, not her mother, aligning with the formula’s title placement after parents, though some interpret it as "elder" (advanced age) or, less likely, as referring to Paniskiaina due to the genitive case of all names, suggesting Artemidora as Mikkalos’ wife and Paniskiaina’s mother. Artemidora likely presided over communities between the second and fourth centuries before the office’s decline, as supported by G.H.R. Horsley’s analysis.[15][16]
Paniskianes fl. 2nd–3rd century Aegyptus The mother of Artemidoras, described as "Paniskianes, being an elder" (presbytera).[17][18]
Epikto / Epiktas[19] fl. 2nd–3rd century Thera Epikto the Presbyter, titled presbytis, is commemorated in a brief second- or third-century inscription from Thera, one of the Cyclades islands in the Aegean Sea, reading "Angel of Epikto presbyter." This inscription is among approximately forty-seven from Thera introduced by the term "angelos," followed by a name in the genitive case, most widely accepted as Christian despite debates over their pagan, Jewish, or Christian origins. The concept of a guardian angel for a tomb, prominent in this collection and seen elsewhere (e.g., Agaliasis from Melos), supports the Christian interpretation. The term presbytis, while potentially meaning "older woman," is more likely a functional title for a presbyter, as tomb inscriptions typically use honorary or official titles, and Canon 11 of the fourth-century Synod of Laodicea attests to presbytides as Christian officeholders who presided over congregations. Hans Achelis notes that if presbytis is the only office mentioned, Epikto would likely have led the Christian community on Thera.[20][21]
Unnamed Catania presbytera fl. 300–350 CE Catania Greek epitaph: "Here lies the ever-virgin Theodoule, who lived 22 years. She died three days before the Kalends of January. The burial was granted as a gift, by authority of the seal of the presbytera (Πρεσβυτέρα)."[22][23] The slab ends with a staurogram (the cross-like monogram) integrated into the teleuta (“ending”) line, marking it as a Christian burial.[24] Irma Bitto (1996) argues for the feminine, noting: The full spelling πρεσβυτέρας appears in comparable Sicilian Christian text. Theodoule's burial near martyrs suggests special status possibly overseen by women ministers.[25] Bitto’s places Theodule’s death around the same persecution that claimed Saint Euplius of Catania (+304 CE).[26][27]
Unnamed Laodicea women fl. 360 CE Laodicea Canon 11 of Synod of Laodicea forbids “appointing (stabilire/ordinare) presbytides in the churches”, proving women presbyters still existed and were influential enough for a conciliar ban.[28]
Presbytera of the choir of virgins at Nyssa fl. late 370s–early 380s CE Nyssa In Letter 6.10, Gregory of Nyssa writes about a woman who holds the title πρεσβυτέρα (presbytera), translated as "elder" or "presbyteress," leading a "choir of virgins" (a monastic or ascetic community of celibate women). Gregory describes her as having authority over the group, likely involving spiritual guidance, discipline, and liturgical participation. "The presbytera of the choir of virgins... whom we have entrusted with the care of the virgins’ community."[29]
Theosebia b. 4th century CE; d. 381 CE Cappadocia Gregory of Nyssa calls her “our συμπρεσβυτέρῳ” (“fellow-presbyter”). Modern reassessment sees this as more than honorific, pointing to a recognised female presbyter within the Cappadocian circle.[30]
Unnamed Nîmes women fl. 394 CE Nîmes The Council of Nîmes in 394 observed that "women appeared to have been admitted to levitical service" and decreed that "such ordination must be reversed if it contradicts reason, and no one should presume to do so in the future." It is highly probable that the ordination and ministry of women into the priesthood was under discussion, though some scholars contend that the Council aimed to prohibit the diaconate rather than the presbyterate.[31]
Macrina the Younger c. 327–380 CE (52 yrs.) Pontus Macrina the Younger, who founded several monasteries and was as well educated as her brother Basil the Great,[32] served as a precursor to Lampadion, who later assumed the role of monastic presbytera.[33] Macrina’s community at Annisa operated under a coordinate hierarchy. The presbytera (or deaconess) managed the women’s quarters alongside the male abbot, with mutual consultation required for decisions. This structure balanced autonomy and collaboration, reflecting Basil’s emphasis on order and propriety (e.g., confessions requiring a deaconess’s presence to ensure propriety).[33][34]
Lampadion fl. late 4th–early 5th centuries CE Pontus Successor to Macrina the Younger as superior (πρεσβυτέρα, presbytera) of the women’s monastic community at Annisa, a double monastery founded by Macrina. Described as a deaconess (διάκονος) in Gregory of Nyssa’s Life of Macrina, she managed daily operations under Macrina’s oversight. The Syriac translation of Basil the Great’s Shorter Rules (QF 162) renders her title as “deaconess,” while the original Greek uses presbytera.[33]

The treatment of the female superior differs by language: the Greek preserves the original term presbytera (feminine of “elder”), the Latin opts for “senior mother,” and the Syriac renders it as “deaconess” (the title used for Lampadion in the Life of Macrina). Basil requires that a deaconess be present during a sister’s confession to the presbyter. In Annisa, as noted by Translator Anna M. Silvas, the monks’ leader is termed πρεσβύτερος or προεστώς, whereas the nuns are guided by a πρεσβυτέρα or προεστῶσα who functions as a co-ordinate superior, emphasizing the distinct yet collaborative roles assigned to male and female monastic leadership.[33][34]

Unnamed Syrian women fl. late 4th century CE Syria In the Didascalia Apostolorum, a 3rd-century Syrian church order, as women who exercised episcopal-like functions, such as oversight, competing with male bishops. According to Hans Achelis, he suggests these presbytides performed duties like prayer, intercession, theological instruction, anointing the baptized, and caring for the sick, which overlapped with episcopal roles, prompting efforts to limit their authority.[35]
Testamentum Domini women fl. early 5th century CE Syria or Egypt Church order twice lists women presbyters, remembered in the liturgy and required to remain with the bishop during night-vigils, ranked between deacons and sub-deacons.[36] This is evident in Testamentum Domini (TD), possibly originating in Syria or Egypt, mentions women presbyters in community prayers and roles with bishops. The text recalls: "For the presbyteresses let us beseech that the Lord may hear their supplications and keep their hearts perfectly in the grace of the Spirit and help their work" (TD 1.35). Additionally, we read of a vigil: "Let the presbyteresses stay with the bishop until dawn, praying and resting" (TD 2.19).[37]
Kalē c. 374–424 CE (50 yrs.) Centuripe Inscription: “Kalē, (Presbytera), who lived fifty years blamelessly.” No mention of a cleric-husband, indicating an independent ecclesiastical office.[38]
Flavia Vitalia fl. 425 CE Salona Given the title "presbytera sancta" and "matrona" (free-born, married woman), Flavia Vitalia was a recognized leader in the Christian community of Salona, an early Christian center.[39] She sold a burial tomb to Theodosius II for three gold solids, reflecting her role in ecclesiastical administration. A duty usually exercised by male presbyters in Rome.[40] Her title presbytera suggests official leadership.[39] Although "presbytera" can sometimes refer to a presbyter's wife, that is unlikely in this case: "holy" is a title commonly associated with clergy, and it is she, rather than her husband, who acts as the church’s representative in the sale of property. It remains unclear, however, what additional presbyteral functions, such as sacramental duties, she may have performed.[41] Her legacy highlights the presence of women in pastoral roles in the Western church, despite contemporary prohibitions.[39]
Guilia Runa fl. after 431 CE Hippo Regius Guilia Runa, identified as a presbyteress (presbiterissa) in an inscription from a medallion mosaic in the church of St. Augustine in Hippo, North Africa, held a recognized leadership role within her community during the Vandal occupation after 431 CE. Likely a Vandal by name and baptized as an Arian Christian, she lived for fifty years and died during or after this period. Her role as presbyteress suggests she was among the leading female ministers, possibly functioning similarly to a widow or deacon, though she likely did not perform routine presbyteral duties. Following Justinian’s reconquest of North Africa in 534 CE, which ended the Vandal kingdom and led to the decline of Arian Christianity, it remains uncertain whether Guilia Runa remained an Arian or converted to Catholic Christianity. Many Vandals were enslaved or fled, and the Catholic Church regained its prominence under Justinian’s rule.[42]
Aurelia Gaiana fl. 4th–5th centuries CE Etruria Inscription (CIL 15, 74) names her "Aur(elia) Gaian(a) pre(s)b(itores)" alongside Aurelius Hilarus, indicating her role as a presbyter. The epigraphic evidence, dated to the 4th–5th century, reflects women’s active leadership in Etrurian Christian communities, corroborated by Otranto’s analysis of female presbyters in early Christianity.[43]
Unnamed Dalmatia women fl. 5th century CE Dalmatia Scholars such as Ute E. Eisen observe that some 4th–6th century Dalmatian inscriptions refer to women as presbyters.[44]
Unnamed Calabria woman fl. 4th–5th centuries CE Calabria Dedicated epigraph to unnamed Calabria woman presbyter.[44]
Unnamed Poitiers woman fl. 4th–5th centuries CE Poitiers Dedicated epigraph to unnamed Poitiers woman presbyter.[44] Possibly practicing Priscillianism.[45]
Martia fl. 5th century CE Poitiers The graffito found near Poitiers in Gaul presents an case of a woman named Martia referred to as "presbyteria" who made an offering together with Olybrius and Nepos. While the exact date is uncertain (possibly late 4th to 6th century), the most plausible interpretation suggests Martia held an official role as a presbyteress. This reading aligns with contemporary Gallic church councils that used similar terminology, though we must distinguish Martia's apparent liturgical function from the non-clerical wives of priests mentioned in those same councils. The key question revolves around whether "presbyteria" describes the offering (as "priestly offerings") or Martia's role (as "presbyteress"). The latter interpretation makes more sense in context, especially considering Olybrius and Nepos were likely fellow presbyters. Unlike the priestly wives referenced in later Gallic legislation, Martia appears to have actively participated in the liturgy, suggesting she held a recognized ministerial position rather than simply being a priest's spouse. This distinction is crucial for understanding women's potential roles in early Christian communities.[46]
Leta c. 453–494 CE (40 yrs.)[47] Tropea /Bruttium Tomb inscription: “Leta the Presbytera, age 40 years, 8 months, 9 days. Husband un‑titled; scholars see this as evidence of her independent presbyteral office in the orthodox church.[48] Traditionally, Leta was considered the wife of a presbyter, possibly linked to Monsis, a presbyter from Tropea (contemporary inscription). However, Ute E. Eisen and Giorgio Otranto argue the inscription, from 5th-century Italy, suggests Leta held the independent role of presbytera. Otranto’s analysis, supported by Pope Gelasius I’s letter (494 CE) criticizing women at altars, indicates Leta’s title reflects an ecclesiastical office, not merely a wife’s status. Inscriptions typically use coniux or amantissima for wives, and Leta’s husband lacks a clerical title, strengthening the case for her as a “true presbyter.” While not definitive, the evidence leans toward Leta’s active presbyteral role.[49] Greek-language epitaph calls her «Λήτα πρεσβύτερα».
Unnamed Italian women fl. 494 CE Southern Italy Pope Gelasius I protested that “women are serving at the sacred altars” (feminas sacris altaribus ministrare), a direct literary witness that women still exercised sacerdotal/ presbyteral functions in Italian dioceses.[50]
Giulia Runa fl. 5th–6th centuries CE Hippo Regius Identified as a presbyterissa on a grave mosaic in St. Augustine’s basilica in Hippo, indicating a role as a female presbyter. Her existence suggests women held ecclesiastical leadership roles in North Africa, despite prohibitions like those in the Laodicean Council against ordaining women as presbyterae (recast as widows or "seniores"). Her legacy highlights evidence of women in pastoral office in the Western church, particularly in North Africa, challenging official restrictions on female ordination during late antiquity.[51]
Sacerdota woman fl. 5th–6th centuries CE Salona A 5th–6th-century fragmentary inscription from Solin, reading “[SAC]ERDOTAE+” (genitive/dative of sacerdota, “priestess”), accompanied by a Christian cross, suggests a woman held a significant ecclesiastical role in Salona’s Christian community. Found near Flavia Vitalia’s presbytera sancta inscription (425 CE), it indicates women may have served as presbyters or, as Ute E. Eisen proposes, possibly a bishop, given the distinct use of sacerdota over presbytera. The title likely denotes an official leadership position, not a priest’s wife or an elderly woman, though the fragmentary evidence leaves the exact role uncertain.[52][53]
Unnamed Gaul woman fl. 567 CE Tours, Gaul Within Council of Tours, Canon 14, it uses the phrase presbiter cum sua presbiteria (“a presbyter with his presbyteria”), showing the feminine title was still current, though here reduced to the cleric’s wife, illustrating the terminological survival after the office’s eclipse.[54]

Titles

Title Description
Presbytera (πρεσβυτέρα)

Presbyteria (πρεσβυτερία)

Described as "female elders," presbyterae were wise and responsible leaders in early Christian communities, often serving on councils advising bishops.[55] They belonged to a clerical order to which women were ordained, distinguished by specific garb.[56] As recognized ecclesiastical leaders, some presbyterae possibly performed sacerdotal functions, such as eucharistic offerings (e.g., Martia).[57][58] The title presbytera, also known as presbyteria, derives from presbyteros or presbytes, which could denote age or a formal Jewish or Christian religious office, reflecting the role’s multifaceted nature.[58] From the 6th to early 7th century CE in the Western Church, presbytera and presbyteria were redefined to mean a presbyter’s unordained wife, a practice exclusive to the West, as evidenced by the Council of Tours, Canon 14 (567 CE), marking the decline of the office’s prominence.[54][59]
Presbytis (πρεσβῦτις)

Presbytides (πρεσβυτίδες)

The term presbytis denotes a "woman elder" who led liturgical services, indicating active participation in worship.[60] The title presbytides signified an official office within the church, not just an age descriptor.[61] Inscriptions referring to "women elders" as presbytides, though challenging to interpret, confirm their recognized leadership roles in ecclesiastical communities.[62]
Presbyterissa/Presbyterissae

(πρεσβυτέρισσα)

Presbyterissa as a title that could denote (depending on the context) either a cleric’s continent wife or, in some cases, a woman with official church status, possibly involved in leadership or liturgical roles, though the office’s prominence waned by the late 5th century due to ecclesiastical reforms.[63]
Priestess

(Sacerdota)

Alongside episcopa and deaconess, sacerdota was considered a separate ordo, encompassing any woman ordained to ministry.[64] The term denotes a "priestess," indicating a woman functioning as a priest within Christian communities.[58] In Jewish epitaphs, sacerdota is rendered as "priestess" or "of priestly descent," suggesting roles tied to priestly functions or lineage.[65]

Non-historical

  • Grapte: c. 100 – 150 CE, Rome, Literary figure in The Shepherd of Hermas repeatedly called “ἡ πρεσβυτέρα” (“the presbyter-woman”). Sitting on a white cathedra with a book, she instructs widows and orphans, commands Hermas to catechise the presbyters, and symbolises the Church “created first of all things.” Modern scholars (e.g., Mary M. Schaefer; Ute Eisen citing M. Leutsch) interpret her role as that of a presbytera, possibly even an episcopa within a collegial early-Roman leadership before the emergence of monarchical episcopacy.[66]
  • Praxedis: daughter of Pudens, led the titulus Pudentis house-church in 2nd-century Rome, hosting Christian gatherings.[67] Traditionally considered a presbytera heading the titulus Praxedis, her role is supported by 17th–18th-century scholars Fioravante Martinelli and Benigno Davanzati.[68] The Santa Pudenziana apse mosaic (early 5th century) may depict her in ecclesiastical attire, suggesting presbyteral status.[69][70] However, some scholars, like Fredric W. Schlatter (1995), argue the mosaic’s female figures symbolize Ecclesia ex circumcisione (Church from the Jews) and Ecclesia ex gentibus (Church from the Gentiles), representing Jewish and Gentile wisdom.[71] Both Praxedis and Pudentiana died of natural causes, with Praxedis described as presbytidis (very old). If born around 66/67 CE, Praxedis would have been 82–84 years old at her death during Pope Pius I’s pontificate. An ancient lectionary, possibly from Santa Prassede and preserved at the Vallombrosan monastery, records her death in 156 CE.[72]
  • Pudentiana: c. 2nd century Rome Pudentiana, daughter of Pudens, supported the Roman Christian community through charity and leadership in the titulus Pudentis.[67] The Santa Pudenziana mosaic (early 5th century) may portray her as a presbytera (Mary Schaefer),[69] but alternative interpretations suggest symbolic figures.[71] Later medieval traditions associate her with presbyteral status.[68] Pudentiana died of natural causes.[72]
  • Apollonia: died in the 3rd century, Alexandria, Dionysius of Alexandria called her “a most remarkable virgin eldress (Presbytis) Apollonia”; she was martyred alongside Mercuria.[73][74]
  • Mercuria: died in 264 CE, Alexandria, Described by Dionysius of Alexandria as “the most holy eldress Mercuria” during Valerian’s persecution; presbytis here denotes a respected leadership role in the orthodox church.[75][74]
  • Tekousa: 3rd–4th century CE, Asia Minor (North Galatia), Leader of the "Virgins of God," a cohesive group of seven Christian women practicing askēsis and sōphrosynē ("disciplined training" or "exercise,"). Known as presbytera parthenos (elder virgin), her name "Mother" reflects spiritual authority. Guided Theodotus, resisted persecution, and influenced early Christian communities.[76]

See also

References

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  19. ^ Also spelt Epiktas according to "Hannaford, R., & Jobling, J. (Eds.). (2004). Theology and the body: Gender, text and ideology (p. 151). T&T Clark."
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  40. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, p. 241)
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  42. ^ (Madigan & Osiek, 2005, pp. 197-198)
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  46. ^ Madigan, K., & Osiek, C. (Eds.). (2011). Ordained women in the early church: A documentary history. p.195 (Johns Hopkins paperback ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. (Original work published 2005)
  47. ^ Leta “died 494 CE” and her tombstone gives her age as “40 years, 8 months, 9 days.” Subtracting forty years brings us to 454 CE, and subtracting the additional eight months and nine days places her birth slightly earlier in that year, hence approximately 453 CE.
  48. ^ Madigan, Kevin; Osiek, Carolyn (2005). Ordained Women in the Early Church. Johns Hopkins University Press. p. 190.
  49. ^ Taylor, J. E., & Ramelli, I. L. E. (Eds.). (2021). Patterns of women’s leadership in early Christianity. Oxford University Press, pp. 284-285.
  50. ^ (Eisen, 2000, p. 29)
  51. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, p. 153)
  52. ^ (Taylor & Ramelli, 2021, p. 287)
  53. ^ Madigan, K., & Osiek, C. (Eds.). (2011). Ordained women in the early church: A documentary history. p.97 (Johns Hopkins paperback ed.). Johns Hopkins University Press. (Original work published 2005)
  54. ^ a b (Eisen, 2000, p. 200)
  55. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, p. 181)
  56. ^ (Macy, 2007, p. 45)
  57. ^ (Madigan & Osiek, 2011, p. 23)
  58. ^ a b c (Madigan & Osiek, 2011, p. 23)
  59. ^ (Kraemer, 2004, p. 89)
  60. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, p. 181)
  61. ^ (Madigan & Osiek, 2011, p. 23)
  62. ^ (Kraemer, 2004, p. 89)
  63. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, pp. 179, 228, 237, 259, 154)
  64. ^ (Macy, 2007, p. 45)
  65. ^ (Kraemer, 2004, p. 89)
  66. ^ (Schaefer, 2013, 181-182)
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  71. ^ a b Schaefer, M. M. (2013). Women in pastoral office: The story of Santa Prassede, Rome. Oxford University Press (p. 37).
  72. ^ a b (Schaefer, 2013, p. 171)
  73. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea. (1998). Ecclesiastical history: Complete and unabridged (p. 226). Hendrickson Publishers.
  74. ^ a b Kroeger, C. (1988). Women in the early church. Christian History, (17). Retrieved from https://christianhistoryinstitute.org/magazine/article/women-in-the-early-church
  75. ^ Eusebius of Caesarea. (1998). Ecclesiastical history: Complete and unabridged (p. 227). Hendrickson Publishers.
  76. ^ Elm, S. (1996). Virgins of God: The making of asceticism in late antiquity. Clarendon Press. (Original work published 1996, pp. 55–56, 73–74)
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