Giosafat Barbaro

Giosafat Barbaro (also spelled Giosaphat or Josaphat; 1413–1494) was a member of the Venetian Barbaro family. He was a diplomat, merchant, explorer and travel writer.[1][2] He was unusually well-travelled for someone of his times traveling to the Byzantine Empire, the Crimea, Russia, the Peloponnese, Poland, Germany, Albania, Persia, the Empire of Trebizond and Georgia.[3]

Family

Giosafat Barbaro was born to Antonio and Franceschina Barbaro in a palazzo on the Campo di Santa Maria Formosa.[4] His father died when Giosafat was young.[5] He became a member of the Venetian Senate in 1431.[4][6] We lack information on his education, but was a skilled geographer, linguist, and negotiator.[7] Barbaro was a member of the Scuola Grande di San Marco.[8]

In 1434, he married Nona Duodo, daughter of Arsenio Duodo.[4] Giosafat and Nona had three daughters and a son, Giovanni Antonio.[4]

Travels to Tana

From 1436 to 1452 Barbaro traveled as a merchant to Tana on the Sea of Azov.[6][9] During this time the Golden Horde was disintegrating due to political rivalries.[3]

The conquest of Central Asia by the Mongols had opened the Black Sea as a trading hub for goods from China, Persia, and parts of Russia.[10] The Venetians settled in Soldaïa and Trebizond, but soon focused on Tana, which was better situated on both land and water trade routes.[11] They would later settle in Maurocasto as well.[12] Tana was the connecting point for the Danube, Polish and Persian trade routes, as well as the route beginning in Astrakhan that led to China.[13] Barbaro mentioned how six or seven trade galleys came from Venice every year for the silks and spices from Astakhan as well as other goods.[14] He also described annual shipments of 40,000 cattle to Central Asia and caravans with 6000 animals that went to India.[15] Among the goods traded in Tana were caviar, salted fish, wine, amber, salt, grain, fur, horses, and slaves.[16]

In July 1436, Barbaro started his first trip to Tana aboard one of the two trade galleys sent by the Senate of Venice.[17] Barbaro's father-in-law, Arsenio Duodo (also Diedo) had been elected Consul to Tana and was also traveling on the galleys.[18] The captains of the galleys initially refused to continue past Constantinople, though they eventually did reach Tana.[19] Initially, Consul Duodo had to stay in Constantinople at his own expense and was not reimbursed by the Senate until two years later.[20]

In November 1437, Barbaro heard of the burial mound of the last King of the Alans, about 20 miles up the Don River from Tana.[21] [22] Barbaro and six other men, a mix of Venetian and Jewish merchants, hired 120 men to excavate the kurgan, which they hoped would contain treasure.[21][22] When the weather proved too severe, they returned in March 1438, but found no treasure.[21][22] Barbaro analytically and precisely recorded information about the layers of earth, coal, ashes, millet, and fish scales that composed the mound.[21][23] Modern scholarship concludes that it was not a burial mound, but a kitchen midden that had accumulated over centuries of use.[24] The remains of Barbaro's excavation was found in the 1920s by Russian archeologist Alexander Alexandrovich Miller.[24]

In 1438, the Great Horde under Küchük Muhammad advanced on Tana.[25] Arsenio Duodo, the Venetian Consul to Tana sent Giosafat Barbaro as an emissary to the Tatars to persuade them not to attack Tana.[6][26] Later, Barbaro was part of a group that drove off a hundred Circassian raiders.[27] Barbaro visited many cities in the Crimea, including Solcati, Soldaia, Cembalo, and Caffa.[6] In 1438, Barbaro traveled to Moscow up the Volga River, where he visited Kazan (Casan) and Novogorod, "which had already come under the power of the Muscovites" (che gia era venuta in potere de'Moscoviti).[28][a] He reported that Russian merchants sailed to Astrakhan every year.[29]

The Tatars attacked Tana in 1442, setting fire to the Venetian quarter, though many of the people survived due to the actions of Consul Marco Duodo, Arsenio's brother. .[30] The fire started in the bazaar near the fortress and was fanned by a strong north wind.[31] Four breaches were made in the city walls, one by Barbaro himself, for people to escape, but even then women and children needed to be lowered over the walls by rope.[32] The fire burned for three hours until a combination of human efforts and rain extinguished it and over four hundred people died.[33]

In 1442, there was also concern over the Turks raiding Venetian shipping.[34] Between that and the siege and fire at Tana, the new Consul Pietro Pesaro was stranded in Caffa for several weeks at his own expense before he was able to relieve Marco Duodo.[35] That July the Venetian Senate considered not sending trade galleys to Tana that year.[36] Instead they ordered Lorenzo Moro to use the war galleys from Negroponte and Naplia to escort the trade galleys commanded by Leonardo Duodo to and from Tana.[37]

Giosafat Barbaro visited many cities in the Crimea, including Solcati, Soldaia, Cembalo, and Caffa.[38] He believed some of the local people were Gothic in origin based on one of his German servants being able to communicate with them in his own language.[39] Barbaro also traveled to Russia, where he visited Casan and Novogorod.[40]

Giosafat owned a house in Tana.[41] He owned a fishery and regularly shipped caviar to Venice.[42]

Giosafat Barbaro did not spend all of the years from 1436 to 1452 in Tartary[43] In 1446, he was elected to the Council of Forty.[44] In 1448, he was appointed Provveditore of the trading colonies Modon and Corone in the Peloponnese and served until his resignation the following year.[44] Since there was regular trade between Venice and Tana at this time, it seems likely Barbaro went to Tana to trade and returned to Venice for the winter over this time.[44]

Barbaro stopped these travels when the Crimean Khanate became a client state of the Ottoman Turks.[9] Marco Basso, the last Venetian Consul before the Fall of Constantinople left Tana before his term ended or his successor arrived.[45] In December 1452, the galleys returning from Tana, three large merchant galleys commanded by Alvise Diedo, and two smaller war galleys commanded by Gabriele Trevisano arrived in Constantinople. Their instructions were to return to Venice within ten days of the arrival of another Venetian galley from Trebizond. That galley, commanded by Giacomo Coco reached Constantinople on December 4, 1452, but Emperor Constantine XI and the Venetian Bailo Girolamo Minotto persuaded them to aid in the city’s defense. [46] Barbaro returned to Venice in 1452, traveling by way of Russia, Poland, and Germany.[47][48]

In 1455, Barbaro freed a pair of Tartar men he had found in Venice, housed them for two months, and sent them home to Tana.[49]

The Fall of Constantinople to the Turks in 1453 cut off the trade route to Tana.[50] Venice and other Italian states tried to re-establish trade in the Black Sea or find alternate routes, but were not successful.[51][52]

Political career

In 1460, Giosafat Barbaro was elected Council to Tana, but he declined the position.[53] In 1462, Barbaro was one of three officials responsible for presents from the Venetian Senate to Philip of Burgundy and Edward IV of England.[54]

In 1463, he was appointed Provveditore of Albania.[53] While there, Barbaro he fought with Lekë Dukagjini and Skanderbeg against the Turks.[55][56][57][1][26] His instructions were to immediately contact Skanderbeg to discuss strategy against the Ottomans and convince Lekë Dukagjini to join the Venetian-Albanian alliance.[58][59][60][61][62] Barbaro was among Skanderbeg's councilors due to his judgment and experience.[63] Barbaro made a comprehensive inspection of the territory, meeting with the leading nobles and trying to recruit them.[64]

On the advice of Barbaro and others, Skanderbeg travelled to the Papal States to request aid from Pope Paul II, but little aid was provided.[65] On his return, Skanderbeg asked Barbaro for troops from Scutari and Barbaro provided five hundred footmen.[66] Provveditore Barbaro linked his forces with those of Dukagjini and Nicolo Moneta to form an auxiliary corps of 13,000 men which was sent to relieve the Second Siege of Krujë.[67] After Skanderbeg's death, Barbaro returned to Venice again.[53]

In 1469, Giosafat Barbaro was made Provveditore of Scutari, in Albania.[6][68] Buildings outside the walls were torn down to provide a clear field of fire and the rubble used to help form redoubts, ditches were cleared, cisterns filled, and the existing fortifications strengthened.[69] Barbaro was in command of 1200 cavalry, which he used to support Lekë Dukagjini against Dukagini’s brother Nicolo, who was supported by the Turks.[47] Nicolo was lost 800 men and was defeated. [70] In 1472, Barbaro was back in Venice, where he was one of the 41 senators chosen to act as electors, who selected Nicolo Tron as Doge.[28]

Venetian conflict with the Ottoman Turks

In 1463, the Venetian Senate, seeking allies against the Ottoman Empire, had sent Lazzaro Querini as its first ambassador to the Aq Qoyunlu state in Mesopotamia, the South Caucasus, and western Iran.[71] but he was unable to persuade Persia to attack the Turks.[72][73] Its ruler, Uzun Hasan, sent envoys to Venice in return.[71] After the Triarchy of Negroponte fell to the Ottomans, Venice, Naples, the Papal States, the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Knights Hospitaller signed an agreement to ally against them.[47]

In 1471, Ambassador Querini returned to Venice with Uzun Hassan's ambassador Murad.[71] The Venetian Senate voted to send another ambassador to Persia, choosing Caterino Zeno after two other men declined.[74] Zeno, whose wife was the niece of Uzun Hassan's wife, was able to persuade Hassan to attack the Turks. Hassan was successful at first, but there were no simultaneous attacks by any of the western powers, and the war turned against the Aq Qoyunlu.[72]

Ambassador to Persia

In 1472, Giosafat Barbaro was also selected as an ambassador to Persia, due to his experience in the Crimean, Muscovy, and Tartary.[75] He also spoke Turkish and a little Persian.[53][76] Barbaro was provided with an escort of ten men and an annual salary of 1800 ducats.[26] His instructions included urging admiral Pietro Mocenigo to attack the Ottomans and attempting to arrange naval cooperation from the Kingdom of Cyprus and the Knights of Rhodes.[26] He was also in charge of three galleys full of artillery, ammunition, and military personnel who were to assist Uzun Hassan.[77]

In February 1473, Barbaro and the Persian envoy Haci Muhammad left Venice and traveled to Zadar, where they met with representatives of Naples and the Papal court.[26] From there, Barbaro and the others traveled by way of Corfu, Modon, Corone reaching Rhodes and then Cyprus, where Barbaro was delayed for a year.[26]

The Kingdom of Cyprus's position off the coast of Anatolia was in a key position for supplying, not just Uzun Hassan in Persia, but the Venetian allies of Caramania and Scandelore (present day Alanya) and the Venetian fleet under Pietro Mocenigo was used to defend communication lines to them.[77] King James II of Cyprus had attempted to ally with Caramania and Scandelore, as well as the Sultan of Egypt, against the Turks.[78] King James had also written to the Venetian Senate, stressing the need to support Persia against the Turks and his navy had cooperated with Admiral Mocenigo in recapturing the coastal towns of Gorhigos and Selefke.[79]

The Emir of Scandelore fell to the Turks in 1473 in spite of military aid from the Kingdom of Cyprus.[78] The power of Caramania was broken.[79] James II of Cyprus privately told Giosafat Barbaro he felt like he was trapped between two wolves, the Ottoman Sultan and the Egyptian Sultan.[78] The latter was James' liege lord, and not on friendly terms with Venice.[80]

James II entered into negotiations with the Turks.[79] At first he refused to let the Venetian galleys with their munitions land in the port of Famagusta.[80] When Barbaro and the Venetian ambassador, Nicolo Pasqualigo, attempted to persuade James II to change his mind, the King threatened to destroy the galleys and kill every man on board.[80]

King James II of Cyprus died in July 1473, leaving Queen Catherine a pregnant widow.[81] James had appointed a seven-member council, which contained Venetian Andrea Cornaro, a relative of the Queen, as well as Marin Rizzo and Giovanni Fabrice, agents of the Kingdom of Naples who opposed Venetian influence.[82] Queen Catherine gave birth to a son, James II in August 1473., with Admiral Pietro Mocenigo and other Venetian officials acting as godfathers.[83]

Once the Venetian fleet left, there was a revolt by pro-Neapolitan forces, which resulted in the deaths of the Queen's uncle and cousin.[84][83] The Archbishop of Nicosia, Juan Tafures the Count of Tripoli, the Count of Jaffa, and Marin Rizzo seized Famagusta, capturing the Queen and the newborn King.[83]

Barbaro and Bailo Pasqualigo were protected by the Venetian soldiers that had accompanied Barbaro. The conspirators made several attempts to persuade Barbaro to hand over the soldiers' arms. The Constable of Cyprus sent an agent, while the Count of Tripoli, the Archbishop of Nicosia, and the Constable of Jerusalem made personal visits. After consulting with Bailo Pasqualigo, they decided to disarm the men, but keep the weapons. Barbaro alerted the captains of the Venetian galleys in the harbor.[85] Barbaro also sent dispatches the Senate of Venice, warning them of events.[84][86] Later, Barbaro and the Venetian troops withdrew to one of the galleys.[87]

By the time Admiral Mocenigo returned to Cyprus, the rebels were quarreling among themselves and the people of Nicosia and Famagusta had risen against them.[86] The uprising was suppressed, those ringleaders who did not flee were executed, and Cyprus became a Venetian client state.[77] The Venetian Senate authorized the troops and military that had accompanied Giosafat Barbaro to stay in Cyprus.[88] The fleet under Admiral Mocenigo captured Selefke and other parts of the coast of Asia Minor. Barbaro took part in this campaign, but was unable to find a safe route to move the men and munitions to Persia. [89][90]

Giosafat Barbaro was still in Cyprus in December 1473, and the Venetian Senate sent a letter, telling Barbaro to complete his journey, as well as sending another ambassador, Ambrogio Contarini to Persia.[91] Barbaro and the Persian envoy left Cyprus in February 1474 disguised as Muslim pilgrims.[91][92] The Papal and Neapolitan envoys did not accompany them.[93] Barbaro landed in Caramania, where the King warned them that the Turks held the territory they would need to travel through.[75][94] After landing in Cilicia, Barbaro's party traveled through Tarsus, Adana, Orfa, Merdin, Hasankeyf, and Tigranocerta[75][93]

In the Taurus Mountains of Kurdistan, Barbaro's party was attacked by bandits.[93] He escaped on horseback, but he was wounded and several members of the group, including his secretary and the Persian ambassador were killed, and their goods were plundered.[95][92] As they neared Tabriz, Barbaro and his interpreter were assaulted by Turcomans after refusing to hand over a letter to Uzun Hassan[95] Barbaro and his surviving companions finally reached Hassan's court in April 1474.[96]

Hasan had recently been defeated by the Ottomans at Baskent.[97] Ambassador Zeno recorded that the Ottomans won because of their firearms and that Uzun Hassan’s Sardar and one of his sons died in the battle. [98] Hasan sent Ambassador Zeno, as well as the Hungarian and Polish ambassadors back to Europe to ask for aid. [99]

Although Barbaro got on well with Uzun Hassan, he was unable to persuade the ruler to attack the Ottomans again.[72] Shortly afterwards, Hassan's son Ogurlu Mohamed, rose in rebellion, seizing the city of Schiras.[100] Barbaro accompanied Uzun Hasan in the military expedition against Ogurlu Mohamed.[101]

The other Venetian ambassador, Ambrosio Contarini, arrived in Persia in August 1474.[72][96] Uzun Hassan decided that Contarini would return to Venice with a report, while Giosafat Barbaro would stay in Persia.[102] In 1476, plague struck Persia and Uzun Hassan faced another revolt, this one by his brother Ruha. [103]

Barbaro visited the ruins of Persepolis, which he incorrectly thought were of Jewish origin.[100][104] He also visited Tauris, Soldania, Isph, Cassan (Kascian), Como (Kom), Yezd, Shiraz and Baghdad.[92] Giosafat Barbaro was the first European to visit the ruins of Pasargadae, where he believed the local tradition that misidentified the tomb of Cyrus the Great as belonging to King Solomon’s mother.[104][105]

Barbaro also traveled to the Caspian Sea, visiting Baku, Derbent, and Strava.[106] He traveled the trade route between Trebizond and Tauris and visited Arzingan (Erzingan) Carputh (Kharput), and Hall (Haladag).[107] When the Persians attacked the Kingdom of Georgia Barbaro accompanied the expedition and was able to visit Tiflis, Cothatis, and Scander.[108][109]

Return to Venice

Barbaro was the last Venetian ambassador to leave Persia, after Uzun Hassan died in 1478.[9][110] By this point only one of Barbaro's entourage was left.[111] While Hassan's sons fought each other for the throne, Barbaro hired an Armenian guide and escaped by way of Erzerum, Aleppo, and Beirut.[9][110][112][113] Barbaro reached Venice in 1479, where he defended himself against complaints that he had spent too much time in Cyprus before going to Persia.[53] Barbaro's report included not just political and military matters, but discussed Persian agriculture, commerce, and customs.[113]

Giosafat Barbaro served as Captain of Rovigo and Provveditore of all Polesine from 1482 to 1485.[114][115] He was also one of the Councilors of Doge Agostino Barbarigo[115] He died in 1494 and was buried in the Church of San Francesco della Vigna.[116]

Writing

In 1487, Barbaro wrote an account of his travels.[57][1][116] In it, he mentions being familiar with the accounts of Niccolò de' Conti and John de Mandeville. In addition to discussing the places he had traveled, Barbaro also included information on India and China that he obtained from people who had traveled there.[117]

Barbaro's account of his travels, entitled "Viaggi fatti da Vinetia, alla Tana, in Persia" was first published from 1543 to 1545 by the sons of Aldus Manutius.[118][9] It is included Giovanne Baptista Ramusio's 1559 "Collection of Travels" as "Journey to the Tanais, Persia, India, and Constantinople"[1][119] This version also included a letter written by Barbaro in 1491 to the Bishop of Padua, Pietro Barozzi, where Barbaro described balcatran an herb consumed by the Tatars that Barbaro had also found when stationed in Croatia.[120][121]The scholar and courtier William Thomas translated Ramusio’s version into English for the young King Edward VI under the title ‘’Travels to Tana and Persia’’ and also includes the account of Barbaro’s fellow ambassador to Persia, Ambrogio Contarini.[122] This work was republished in London in 1873 by the Hakluyt Society.[123][124] and a Russian language edition was published in 1971.[125] In 1583, Barbaro’s account was published by Filippo Giunti in ‘’Volume Delle Navigationi Et Viaggi’’ along with those of Marco Polo and Kirakos Gandzaketsi’s account of the travels of Hethum I, King of Armenia.[126]

In 1601, a Latin extract by Jacob Geuder von Herolzburg of Barbaro’s and Contarini’s accounts was included in Pietro Bizzarri’s "Rerum Persicarum Historia" along with accounts by accounts by Bonacursius, Jacob Geuder von Heroldsberg, Giovanni Tommaso Minadoi, and Henricus Porsius; which was published in Frankfurt.[127] in 2005, Barbaro’s account was also published in Turkish as ‘’Anadolu'ya ve İran'a seyahat’’.[128] In 1647, this extract of Barbaro’s work was published by Joannes de Laet.[129] It also appeared in "Georgii Hornii Ulyssea" in 1671.[130]

In 1788, an annotated extract of Barbaro’s work was published by Johann Reinhold Forster in "Histoire des découvertes et des voyages faits dans le Nord, Vol"[131] It also appears in Johann Beckmann’s "Litteratur der älteren Reisebeschreibungen", published in 1810,[132] and "Di Marco Polo e degli altri viaggiatori veneziano", published in 1818 by Giacinto Placido Zurla.[133] In 1836, Vasily Semanov published a translation of Barbaro’s work into Russian.[134] In 2005, part Barbaro’s account was also published in Turkish as "Anadolu'ya ve I?ran'a seyahat".[135]

Giosafat Barbaro showed skill in observing unfamiliar places and reporting on them.[136][137] In addition to reporting on the state of commerce and agriculture in the places he visited, Barbaro described religious observations, funeral rites, and other customs.[138] His account “is still valuable for its important contributions towards the history of the commerce and geography of the middle ages”.[139] Barbaro's account provided more information on Persia and its resources than that of Contarini.[76] He showed skill in observing unfamiliar places and reporting on them.[104] Much of Barbaro's information about the Kipchak Khanate, Persia, and Georgia is not found in any other sources.[9]

Giosafat Barbaro's dispatches to the Venetian Senate were compiled by Enrico Cornet and published as Lettere al Senato Veneto in 1852 in Vienna.[140] Barbaro also discussed his travels in a letter written in 1491 to the Bishop of Padua, Pietro Barozzi.[92]

He is one of the historical characters who appear in Dorothy Dunnett's novel Caprice and Rondo in the House of Niccolò series. In the game Civilization V he is a great merchant for the Venetians.

Notes

  1. ^ In the reference it does not specify which "Novogorod" whether it is the one at Lake Ilmen or "Nizhny Novgorod" on Volga, but it is mentioned in context of traveling around Volga and Oka rivers. "Veliky Novgorod" at lake Ilmen is nowhere near the area. The Duchy of Nizhny Novgorod was annexed by Muscovy in 1392 (Principality of Nizhny Novgorod-Suzdal).

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